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Ceramics are a material that has been used for hundreds of years. The uses range from pottery to complicated aerospace components. They are valued for their toughness, strength, resilience to wear, electrical and thermal insulation, and chemical durability. Furthermore, these materials have a variety of unique optical, chemical, electrical, magnetic, mechanical, and thermal properties, making them suitable for contemporary investigations and developing technologies in medicine, aerospace, communications, electronics, energy, transportation, and chemical manufacturing. There are numerous processing methods for creating ceramic matrix composites. These approaches include the powder metallurgy, sol-gel method, freeze-casting, additive manufacturing, hot pressing and hot isostatic pressing (HIP), and slip-casting processes. This chapter focused on discussing how the different processing methods of ceramic composites have been employed in their manufacturing for various industrial applications.
Industrial Engineering Department, Durban University of Technology, South Africa
Oludolapo Akanni Olanrewaju
Industrial Engineering Department, Durban University of Technology, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to: oluseguna@dut.ac.za
1. Introduction
The term “ceramics” is derived from the Greek word “keramicos,” which means burnt materials. They have been around for over a thousand decades and are made of naturally existing basic ingredients. Ceramics are typically inorganic and non-metallic solids (made from powdered components), with relatively low melting points that require high temperatures for production and application. They are typically a compound of various substances or a mixture of compounds containing metallic and non-metallic elements and might be oxides, carbides, borides, or silicides [1].
Composite ceramic materials (CCM) are classes of advanced materials that integrate the exceptional properties of ceramics such as high hardness, electrical insulation, thermal stability, wear resistance, high-temperature stability, and chemical inertness and have emerged as vital components in the development of advanced technologies. Since the early 1990s, Astrium has been developing a leading-edge essential technology known as ceramic matrix composites (CMCs). Carbon-reinforced silicon carbide (C/SiC) is an intriguing representative of the category of CMCs, which is manufactured utilizing the liquid polymer infiltration (LPI) process [2].
There are two types of ceramics: traditional and advanced. The first group contains inorganic non-metallic substances (either non-metallic or metallic compounds), such as clay (plastic materials), silica (filler), and feldspar (fluxes), whereas the other group includes oxides, nitrate compounds, carbides, and nonsilicate glass. Ceramics are historically manufactured using oxide compositions, which can be amorphous or crystalline. In many circumstances, they fail to be entirely dense and incorporate permeability in the smaller to larger size categories [1].
Traditional ceramics are made using oxide compositions that might be amorphous or crystalline. As a result, they are not entirely dense in their formations and have permeability in both small and large size categories. Advanced ceramics differentiate themselves from typical ceramics in that they have more strength, adaptability, hardness, and higher temperature ratings. Table 1 compares the benefits and drawbacks of standard and innovative composite ceramic materials. Table 2 also includes some examples of advanced ceramic materials, showing their structural phases and characteristics.
Items
Traditional ceramics
Advanced ceramics
Raw materials
Their formations are derived from natural materials and not processed, they include: clay, feldspar, and quartz.
They are made of synthetic, excellent-quality powders. These chosen raw materials are accountable for offering a variety of unique functions and features.
Structures
The clay’s composition determines its structure. For example, pottery from distinct regions has varying textures. Traditional ceramics have more complex chemical structures and compositions since they are made from different raw materials.
Advanced ceramics possess simple chemical structures that are highly pure and clear. Also, their formation was done using manually calculated ingredients, which shows that the raw materials are under control. Thus, their microstructure is often fine and consistent.
Manufacturing processes
Minerals for conventional ceramics can be utilized directly for wet moldings, such as slurry grouting or mud plastic molding. Their temperatures change from 900 to 1400°C after sintering, which implies that the green body is ready for use.
The use of dry and wet molding for advanced ceramics is applicable once organic additives have been introduced to enhance the raw materials of high-purity powders. Additional processing is required after fire at higher sintering temperatures (ranging from 1200 to 2200°C) depending on the material used. In terms of preparation techniques, sophisticated ceramics surpass the limitations of traditional ceramics.
Functions and applications
Traditional ceramic materials often get produced where they are daily used as materials for building purposes.
Advanced ceramics outperform traditional ceramics in terms of both performance and innovative uses. They exhibit a variety of Physical and mechanical qualities include large toughness, durability, thermal shock resistance, durability against wear, durability against corrosion, and extreme-temperature resistance.
Table 1.
Advantages and disadvantages of traditional and advanced composite ceramic materials [1].
Ceramic materials
Phases/Bonds/Forms
Properties
Aluminum nitride (AlN)
Has a hexagonal crystal shape and is covalently linked.
Chemical stability, spectrum gap (62 eV, direct), hardness (1100 kg/mm2), threshold electrical field (12MV/cm), resistivity to oxidation, thermal conductivity (320 W/mK), etc.
Aluminum oxynitride (AlON)
Transparent polycrystalline ceramic material with a spinel-type structure.
Excellent thermomechanical and optical transparency properties.
Titanium diboride (TiB2)
Their structure is hexagonal lattice in shape (C32) with a space group of P6/mmm.
High hardness, excellent corrosion, thermal oxidation, high chemical stability, and wear resistance.
Zirconia toughened alumina
It contains around 7–25 wt.% unstabilized ZrO2 or Y-TZP incorporated into an Al2O3 matrix.
They have compressive strength of 2500 MPa, elastic modulus of 330 GPa, igh hardness, fracture toughness of 7.3 MPa m1/2, coefficient of thermal expansion of 8 x 10−6°C−1, low cost, and simple processing procedures.
Titanium silicocarbide (Ti3SiC2)
A hexagonal structure having a P63/mmc space group. It is composed of three interaction methods, all of which are identical to the van der Waals force (Ti and Si).
Vickers hardness (4 GPa), density (4520 kg/m3), Young’s modulus (322 GPa), high-temperature oxidation and corrosion resistance, easy machinability, better stability.
Silicon dioxide or silica (SiO2)
They can be classified into two essential compositional forms (crystalline and amorphous) and exist in three major phases (quartz, tridymite, and cristobalite).
They are defined by excellent stability in chemical form, a reasonable cost, a non-toxic dielectric coefficient (50–100), and a favorable effect on the surroundings.
Hafnium nitride (HN)
They show a rock-salt structure with a lattice constant of 4.525 A.
They possess a good melting point of 3653.15 K, high thermal stability and chemical inertness, and a hardness of 16.3 GPa.
Calcium copper titanate (CCTO)
They possess body-centered cubic (bcc) with a Lm3 space group.
They have a bandgap of (3.4 eV), high dielectric losses, and a low breakdown voltage.
Magnesium dititanate (MgTi2O5)
Their structure is Rthorhombic pseudobrookite-type.
They are thermally stable (< 1873.15 K), low CTE, low thermal conductivity, and high thermal shock resistance.
Cadmium sulfide (CdS)
They are in the form of n-type semiconductors.
They have a direct bandgap of (2.4 eV), superior light absorption, suitable flat-band potential, and easy agglomeration.
These materials, which combine the benefits of ceramics with those of other materials, are increasingly being utilized in sectors ranging from aerospace and electronics to biomedical engineering and energy storage. This chapter explores the processing techniques and diverse applications of composite ceramic materials, highlighting their significance in driving innovation in emerging technologies.
The worldwide market for ceramic materials with diverse uses in the fields of ecology, specialized tools, biomedical and electronics, and environmental domains is increasing. Numerous ceramic substances and production techniques are currently developed with task-specific properties. The material, production processes, and manufacturing conditions all have an impact on attributes such as durability against corrosion, superior optical and electrical performance, hardness, and wrinkle prevention [1].
Different studies have been done regarding ceramic composites, which include ceramic coating of both heat-resistant, biomedical, corrosion-resistant, improving microstructural and electromagnetic wave absorption performances using the atmospheric plasma spraying method [7, 8, 9, 10, 11], the use of ceramic composites as filters in the reduction of non-metallic inclusions in molten steel to improve the quality of steel products [12], as biomaterials with bioglasses for bone replacement applications [13], and it was also used as a coating on rubber by aerosol deposition with cryogenic substrate cooling to show the optical transparency and mechanical properties of the ceramic film formed [3, 4, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Moreover, ceramic and fluoropolymer composites were used as coating materials for controlling friction and wear for tribological purposes [19]. Furthermore, Sawunyama et al. [20] reported that a coal fly-ash based ceramic membrane was used in wastewater treatment. This chapter discussed the processes and applications of ceramic composites for various emerging technological uses.
2. Processing techniques for composite ceramic materials
Composite ceramic materials can be made in a variety of ways. Composite ceramic materials can be arranged in a number of shapes, including hollow fibers, tubes, and flat discs. Furthermore, composite ceramic materials can be manufactured in four steps: (i) material preparation, (ii) processing, (iii) sintering, and (iv) finishing. Some of the processing techniques involved in composite ceramic materials include powder metallurgy, sol-gel techniques, freeze-casting, additive manufacturing, hot pressing, and slip casting.
2.1 Powder metallurgy
Powder metallurgy is a widely used technique for producing composite ceramics. It involves the mixing of ceramic powders with other materials, followed by compaction and sintering at high temperatures. This method allows for precise control over the composition and microstructure of the material, making it possible to engineer composites with desired properties such as enhanced mechanical strength and thermal conductivity. The process provides a better way of manufacturing high-quality sintered and structural components for a large array of applications in various industries. This is due to its low cost, unusual versatility, and the ability to blend with high melting points. The flexibility of powder metallurgy in composite ceramics helps to control porosity, reduce noise or damping vibrations, enhance good surface finishing, and provide unique magnetic properties. There are four methods involved, which include powder production, compacting, sintering, and mixing and blending [21, 22].
2.2 Sol-gel processing techniques
The sol-gel process is a versatile method for synthesizing composite ceramics at relatively low temperatures. This technique involves the transition of a solution containing metal alkoxides or other precursors into a gel, which is then dried and calcined to form a ceramic material. The sol-gel process is particularly advantageous for producing nanocomposites with uniform particle distribution and fine microstructures, which are essential for applications requiring high precision and performance, high quality with defined threshold strength, near-net-shape, and complex ceramic parts [1].
In sol-gel manufacturing, ceramic precursors are important to the gel-forming mechanism (through polycondensation, hydrolysis, etc.). The gel network’s backbone is made up of hydroxides and metal alkoxides, which are eventually processed into ceramics. When employing sol-gel casting to create ceramic components, there are two key factors to consider. First, calculate the ideal gelation speed, which must be quick enough to keep the foam from collapsing. Second, the gel rheology must enable all aspects of the mold to be filled; hence, gels with high fluidity are necessary, especially for manufacturing very complicated structures [1].
2.3 Freeze casting
Freeze-casting was invented as a “near net-shape” forming method for robust ceramics, but the porous character caused by frozen crystalline melting during the casting process was considered problematic at the time. The goal was carried out to avoid the formation of voids caused by evaporating crystallized ice, which was developed as a “near net-shape” forming method for strong ceramics; however, the porous nature induced by frozen crystal sublimation during the casting process was deemed problematic at the time. An attempt was made to prevent the voids created by evaporating crystallized ice. Subsequently, through an alternate viewpoint, the regulated formation, growth, and evaporation of crystalline ice was recognized as an important benefit of the freeze-casting technique for producing coordinated and functional porosity.
It demonstrated the utility of freeze-casting technology in the production of macroporous ceramics. Freeze-cast frameworks with significant permeability (~90%) and vertically aligned, hierarchically structured pores were originally created for biomedical applications [23]. Figure 1 depicts the procedures of freeze-casting utilizing aqueous slurry that is layered over a three-phase structure made up of water, and Figure 2 depicts the schematic depiction of freeze-casting for composite ceramic components.
Figure 1.
Preparation methods for freeze-cast sintered sections: (a) initial slurry, (b) solidified body, (c) green body following sublimation, and (d) sintered body [23].
Figure 2.
Freeze-casting process for composite ceramic components: schematic representation [1, 23].
Freeze-casting involves creating an enduring aqueous or non-aqueous colloidal solution, putting it into a mold, freezing the molded suspension, sublimating the solidified phase at reduced pressure, and sintering to form a porous structure. The sintering process happens by connecting the surfaces of particulates before heating through substantial mass transmission and surface-transport systems, with the primary objective becoming to generate a completely dense solid constituent (some remnant porous persists in most circumstances) [1]. Sintering technologies were divided into three mainstreams: (i) modified spark plasma sintering (SPS) route, (ii) flash sintering-like processes, and (iii) hydro-consolidation (sintering in the presence of water) [24, 25].
2.4 Additive manufacturing (AM)
Additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, has emerged as a transformative technology for the fabrication of composite ceramics. AM enables the layer-by-layer construction of complex geometries with precise control over the material’s composition and microstructure. Techniques such as stereolithography, selective laser sintering, and binder jetting are being adapted for ceramic composites, allowing for the production of customized components with intricate designs. The flexibility of AM is particularly beneficial for emerging technologies in electronics, where miniaturization and integration are key. Traditional ceramics are notoriously difficult to produce, making it difficult to manufacture objects with intricate shapes. The new method of three-dimensional (3D) printing provides substantial opportunities for growth in the area of molding and creating outstanding durability ceramics. It is predicted to break past the technological limitations of traditional ceramic processing and manufacture, opening up new paths for the use of essential ceramic components [25].
2.5 Hot pressing and hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
Hot pressing and hot isostatic pressing are advanced techniques that enhance the density and mechanical properties of composite ceramics. Hot pressing involves the simultaneous application of heat and pressure to the material, promoting densification and reducing porosity. HIP uses a high-pressure gas environment to uniformly apply pressure, eliminating internal voids and resulting in near-net-shape components. These techniques are crucial for producing high-performance composites required in demanding applications such as aerospace and defense. The process involves the use of high-pressure, low strain rate, and high temperature for synthesis in the design process to produce a dense, compact material using powder metallurgy. It is often used to synthesize carbides, borides, nitride, and oxide materials [26].
2.6 Slip casting
Slip casting is one of the most widely utilized industrial procedures for ceramic processing because it allows for precise microstructure control in cast porous materials as well as a high degree of ceramic phase dispersion. Slip-casting is the procedure of immersing a permeable shape (often a mold) containing ceramic slurry. Slip casting is developed primarily for hollow components/forms (though it can additionally be utilized to create concave and flattened tiles), is affordable, and integrates form elegance with sophistication as contrasted with alternative constituent fabrication methods, as illustrated in Figure 3 [1, 27].
Figure 3.
The different stages of slip-casting containing H2O, ceramic particles, and adhesive, the molded item, dried green sheet, and ultimately, the internal makeup of the sintered components [1, 27].
A slip-casting slurry requires four primary elements: ceramic particles (ball-milled to sub-micron small category), desalinated water (in order to assist in meticulous control of dispersion settings), chemical deflocculant (allows to optimize the proportions of solids and preserve colloidal consistency in the slurry), and organic adhesive (to provide green toughness) [1, 28].
3. Applications of composite ceramic materials in emerging technologies
3.1 Aerospace and defense
Composite ceramics are used in aerospace and military to make components with high thermal stability, strength, and wear resistance. Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are used in turbine blades, heat shields, and missile nose cones to endure severe temperatures and mechanical strains. These materials are lightweight, which adds to fuel efficiency and increased performance in aeronautical applications. Composite ceramic materials possess better durability, make the structure lighter weight, and ensure the highest safety level when used in aerospace industries [29]. Composite ceramic materials have good thermal conductivity, high-temperature stability, high hardness, high corrosion resistance, and good versatility and are mainly used in the high-temperature section of the aircraft exhaust nozzle [30].
3.2 Electronics and telecommunications
Composite ceramics’ electrical insulating characteristics aid the electronics sector, which uses them in substrates, capacitors, and insulating layers for integrated circuits. The high thermal conductivity of certain ceramic composites also helps with heat dissipation, which is critical for electronic device reliability. Ceramic composites are used in telecommunications components like filters, resonators, and antennas because of their stability and low dielectric loss, which improve signal clarity and transmission efficiency. Ceramic components are widely used in electronic applications, including automotive, communications, electrical components, semiconductor devices, Filters, circulators, oscillators, thermally resilient resonators, isolators, phasing changers, and antennas made from dielectric resonators are used in microwave and millimeter wave interactions, as well as radar and sensor systems. They can operate at extreme temperatures, frequencies, and power ratings in hostile environments [1].
Power electronics packaging involves adequate distribution of heat. Copper linked to ceramic components serves as a heat sink. The housing additionally delivers electrical linkage to the outside world, protects the integrated circuit from dangerous chemical species, and allows for chip manipulation. Glass ceramic is the most common type of ceramic component used in microelectronic packages, Al2O3, beryllia, zirconia, or magnesia. Copper’s strong thermal conductivity allows for fast heat sinking, while Al2O3 has a high dielectric capacity and so provides good electrical insulation [1, 4, 5, 6, 31].
3.3 Biomedical engineering
Composite ceramics are used extensively in biomedical engineering, particularly in the production of implants and prostheses. Bio-ceramics, such as hydroxyapatite composites, are utilized in bone transplants and dental implants because they are biocompatible and encourage bone formation [9]. Ceramic composites’ wear resistance and inertness make them ideal for joint replacements and other load-bearing implants. Additionally, the development of bioactive ceramic composites is opening the door to enhanced delivery mechanisms for drugs and tissue engineering applications. Ceramic components are used in a variety of biomedical applications, including dental and hip prostheses, sensors, and implantable devices [9]. Because ceramic nanomaterials are not subjected to high temperatures, low-temperature adhesive technologies such as glass ionomer cements, zinc phosphate mortars, and composite resin mortars are widely utilized to bond to dental ceramics. Ceramic components have gained appeal in prostheses such as dental implants and orthopedics because of their durability against wear, strength, biocompatibility, and the ideal balance of stability [1].
3.4 Energy storage and conversion
Composite ceramics play an important role in energy storage and conversion technologies. Energy storage technologies are used to store solar and wind power, such as electricity, thermal energy, or mechanical energy, in the form of batteries, pumped hydro storage, and compressed air energy storage [32]. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), which use ceramic electrolytes, provide a highly efficient and ecologically benign means of generating energy from a wide range of fuels. Ceramic composites are also utilized in batteries, capacitors, and supercapacitors, where their high ionic conductivity and stability improve energy density and charge/discharge cycles. These materials are critical for advancing renewable energy technology and developing sustainable energy systems.
3.5 Environmental applications
Composite ceramics are increasingly used in environmental technologies, including filtration and catalysis. Ceramic membranes, for example, are utilized in water and gas filtration systems because they are chemically resistant and can tolerate extreme circumstances. Composite ceramics are used in catalytic converters to support catalysts that minimize hazardous emissions from vehicles and industrial activities. These materials’ longevity and effectiveness make them indispensable for resolving environmental issues and fostering sustainability.
Membrane-based components are preferable for environmental applications because they are faster and less expensive, more adaptable to other processes, and more selective. Ceramic membranes typically consist of an upper level, a middle level, and a base layer, resulting in high flexibility and penetration. In membrane applications, the ceramic support offers mechanical strength to the upper level, a minimal barrier to filtrate flow, and a middle layer that inhibits penetration [1].
The production and application of composite ceramic materials are critical to the growth of new technologies. These materials provide outstanding performance and reliability in a variety of applications, including aerospace and biomedical engineering. As processing techniques progress and new applications emerge, composite ceramics will become increasingly crucial in influencing the future of innovative materials and technology. Their adaptability and outstanding qualities make them indispensable in the pursuit of improved performance, sustainability, and innovation across multiple industries.
Composite ceramics are an appealing material, resulting in their multiple applications in biomedical, environmental, and electrical fields. Composite ceramics in power electronics are a newly developed field with promising applications in high-temperature cycling due to their reduced lack of switching and increased voltage failure. They supply a low-resistance transmitting route, a thermal pathway to the energy sink, and insulation in the wiring and the heat sink.
The authors are grateful for the enabling support from the National Research Foundation (NRF) postdoctoral grant (PSTD 23041090962) and the Durban University of Technology, South Africa.
The authors declare no conflict of interest regarding this submission.
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Written By
Olusegun Adigun Afolabi and Oludolapo Akanni Olanrewaju
Submitted: 21 August 2024Reviewed: 13 September 2024Published: 15 November 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
