Open access peer-reviewed chapter
Abstract
Faced with water shortages and the need to recycle wastewater, ceramic membranes stand out as an efficient, environmentally friendly solution for filtration. Although their manufacturing cost is relatively high, the use of clay, an abundant and inexpensive material, reduces these costs. This chapter examines the importance of flat clay-based ceramic membranes, highlighting their durability and cost-effectiveness. The chapter covers membrane-manufacturing steps, including raw material conditioning, powder preparation, shaping, and heat treatment or sintering. It highlights the incorporation of pore-forming agents to improve membrane porosity and permeability. All in all, the use of clay makes it possible to manufacture cost-effective, high-performance ceramic membranes tailored to today’s water treatment needs.
Keywords
- ceramic membrane
- clay
- filtration
- pore-forming agent
- sintering
1. Introduction
Over the last century, water consumption has increased at more than twice the rate of human population growth, making water scarcity one of the most pressing challenges facing humanity [1]. The problems associated with water scarcity and climate change make wastewater treatment essential to guarantee sufficient, high-quality water resources. Among treatment processes, membrane filtration has proven to be one of the most effective methods of water purification. This process, based on the passage of a liquid through a porous structure under the action of various driving forces (thermal, osmotic, electrical, or pressure), is widely used in the treatment of industrial effluents and wastewater [2].
Membranes can be classified into two broad categories: organic and inorganic. Organic membranes, mainly made of polymers, dominate the market due to their relatively low production costs [3]. Although they cover a wide range of membrane processes, they have significant limitations, such as low resistance to temperature and corrosion and limited service life [4]. These drawbacks restrict their use under severe conditions.
On the other hand, inorganic membranes, notably ceramic membranes made from metal oxides such as alumina, titanium, and zirconia, offer better thermal and mechanical resistance, as well as long service life [5]. These membranes, particularly those made from alumina [6, 7, 8], are among the most commonly used ones. However, their production costs are high, mainly due to the high sintering temperatures required (in excess of 1500°C) to achieve good mechanical strength and porosity [9].
In recent years, the use of low-cost raw materials as precursors for ceramic membranes has attracted increasing attention. One promising solution for reducing the production costs of ceramic membranes lies in the use of abundant, low-cost materials such as clay [10]. Clay is a natural sedimentary rock composed mainly of phyllosilicate minerals rich in silica and alumina. It is characterized by its plasticity when mixed with water and its ability to harden when heated [11]. Clay, available in various forms such as kaolin, fire clay, bending clay, and bentonite, offers significant economic advantages. In addition, clays can be molded into various shapes and are durable [12].
Membrane technology has long been considered one of the most efficient methods for industrial effluent filtration and wastewater treatment [13]. Ceramic membranes have been widely used in a variety of fields, including food and beverage, biotechnology, chemistry, and waste recovery [9, 14, 15, 16]. They can be regenerated for multiple use cycles and are particularly effective for separations of aqueous and non-aqueous solutions, including in the petrochemical sector where organic membranes cannot be used [17]. Numerous ceramic membranes are already available on the market for industrial separation applications [18].
This chapter will focus on flat clay-based ceramic membranes, highlighting their growing importance in today’s context of sustainable water resource management. We will examine the advantages and challenges associated with their manufacture and use and detail the processes involved in manufacturing and characterizing these membranes.
2. Ceramic membrane manufacture
The manufacture of ceramic membranes is based on proven technologies from the ceramics industry, which are organized into several essential steps as recommended by Fantozzi et al. [19].
2.1 Raw material conditioning
The process begins with the conditioning of raw materials, where the necessary components are meticulously prepared and measured to ensure optimum quality and homogeneity of the materials used in membrane preparation. This initial stage is of paramount importance, as it includes the rigorous selection of clays, renowned for their abundance and suitability for the economical manufacture of ceramic membranes. These choices are guided by their physicochemical properties, such as plasticity and drying behavior, which are essential for obtaining robust, efficient membranes.
2.2 Material preparation
Membrane performance is closely linked to the materials of which they are made. Membrane composition directly influences characteristics such as rejection rate (selectivity), clogging tendency, mechanical strength, and reactivity [20]. To meet the growing demand for cost-effective ceramic membranes, several researchers have turned their attention to the use of abundant natural clays such as kaolinitic clay, kaolinitic clay, smectic clay, and Moroccan pozzolan clay [16, 21, 22, 23, 24]. These materials offer a promising alternative due to their abundance in nature and properties suitable for the manufacture of efficient, cost-effective ceramic membranes.
2.3 Clay
Clays occupy a prominent place among the minerals mostly present on the earth’s surface, reaching around 16%, as reported by Al-Ani and Sarapää, [25]. Due to their physicochemical properties, clays possess a wide variety of uses [26, 27, 28]. In particular, the plasticity of clays, their behavior during drying, and the mechanical strength of products after drying are also of great importance [29].
All these clays have different compositions due to different geological conditions [2], for example, a Chinese kaolinite clay will not have the same composition as a Tunisian kaolinite clay. Clay is considered one of the most widely used industrial minerals, with increasing demand in a wide range of industrial applications, such as ceramics, paints, rubbers, plastics, and refractory industries [30, 31]. Clay is the preferred raw material for the manufacture of porous ceramics [10].
2.4 Agent porogène
A porogène can be added to the ceramic powder to increase the porosity of the final material, thus improving membrane permeability [32]. Porosity, defined as the volume of voids within a porous substance [33], is essential for filtration applications. Obada et al. [34] reported that the porosity of ceramic membranes increased in proportion to the percentage of the pore-forming agent added.
Many materials can be used as pore formers, such as potato starch [35], sago starch [36], rice bran [37], sawdust [38], phosphate washing sludge [24, 39], cattle bone ash [40], rice husk waste [41], coconut shells and eggshells [42], sugarcane bagasse [43], and banana peel powder [44]. Pure substances such as urea can also be used as pore formers [45].
However, increasing the percentage of the porogen agent leads to a decrease in the mechanical strength of the ceramic membrane and an increase in shrinkage behavior [46]. Higher porosity, resulting from an increased percentage of porogène, makes the membrane less mechanically robust, and the sample size decreases considerably.
The porogène also has a significant impact on the sintering process. A notable phenomenon can occur due to the combustion of this porous material and the loss of moisture during sintering. As the percentage of the pore-forming agent used increases, so does membrane shrinkage. For zero percent pore-forming agent, shrinkage is mainly due to moisture loss [46]. At the same time, the density of the membrane decreases as the pore content increases. This decrease in density is caused by the removal of the pore-forming agent, leading to the formation of pores in the material’s structure, which affects its physical properties.
2.5 Manufacturing
There are a number of different processes for manufacturing ceramic membranes, among which dry pressing stands out as an efficient and environmentally friendly method. Unlike wet methods, dry pressing does not require the use of water, making it environmentally friendly. In addition, uniaxial pressing specifically densifies the membrane structure by compressing the ceramic powder in a mold under uniaxial pressure. This increased compression promotes close contact between particles, reducing porosity and facilitating the formation of intermolecular bonds and solid bridges between grains [47, 48].
The uniaxial pressing process involves several key steps: first, the ceramic powder is carefully distributed and compacted in the mold, determining the final thickness of the membrane. Next, uniaxial pressure is applied for a set time, consolidating the particles and improving the cohesion of the structure. After this compression phase, decompression is performed by slowly withdrawing the plunger from the mold, allowing the elastic energy of the powder to recover. However, this process can sometimes lead to defects such as pellet cleavage, a problem that can be mitigated by the judicious addition of plasticizers to improve flexibility and resistance to deformation.
In comparison, isostatic pressing uses uniform hydrostatic pressure applied equally to all surfaces of the mold filled with ceramic powder. This process is preferred for achieving uniform, controlled densification of the membranes, ensuring homogeneous distribution of physical properties throughout the structure.
In short, the choice between uniaxial and isostatic pressing depends on the specific density, porosity, and mechanical strength requirements of ceramic membranes. These techniques play a crucial role in the economical and efficient manufacture of clay-based membranes, meeting the growing needs of water treatment and other industrial applications.
2.6 Thermal treatment or sintering
Before a ceramic membrane achieves its final properties, it must undergo the drying and sintering stages essential for its consolidation and functionality.
2.6.1 Drying
Drying of ceramic membranes is generally characterized by measuring mass loss as a function of time but can also be expressed as a function of humidity [49]. In general, drying corresponds to the removal of solvent from the membranes [19, 49, 50]. This step is crucial to avoid crack formation during sintering, as proper drying ensures that the membrane is prepared for the high temperatures of the sintering process.
2.6.2 Sintering
Sintering is the final stage in the production of ceramic membranes. This process transforms a solvent-bonded powder mass into a dense, coherent part, under the effect of heat treatment while remaining below the melting temperature of the main constituent [49, 50]. The smaller the particle size of the powders, the faster the sintering process, as the contact points between individual particles fuse more easily when the temperature reaches a sufficiently high level. This leads to a transformation from solid-vapor to solid-solid interfaces [50].
The two main mechanisms during sintering are densification and granular growth/coalescence [19]. A typical sintering thermal program consists of several temperature steps. The first stage corresponds to the desorption of physisorbed water. This step is essential to prevent the formation of fissures during sintering, requiring the ceramic membrane to be dried at a temperature of between 100 and 110°C before the temperature is increased [51]. The second stage is designed to remove organic additives and other volatiles from the membrane. The third stage is generally for final consolidation of the material.
The consolidation temperature is essential and must be adapted to the materials used to avoid defects in the final product. Too high a sintering temperature can lead to excessive densification of the ceramic material, causing complete pore closure [52]. On the other hand, too low a temperature can produce an unconsolidated substrate with low mechanical strength. Precise control of the temperature and duration of each stage is therefore essential to obtain ceramic membranes with optimum properties.
3. Characterization of ceramic materials (clay and pore-forming agent)
Prior to use, raw materials need to be characterized to gain in-depth knowledge of the samples. This characterization is divided into several essential aspects.
3.1 Mineralogical characterization by X-ray diffraction (XRD)
The mineralogy of clays is studied to identify the different minerals present. This analysis is crucial to understanding the physical and mechanical properties of ceramic materials, as well as their behavior during sintering.
3.2 Chemical analysis using X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
It determines the elemental composition of clay in the form of oxides, which is important for understanding its physicochemical properties. For example, iron oxide (Fe2O3) gives a reddish coloration to clay membranes after sintering. The color of ceramics can also be influenced by the CaO content, which can give yellowish and pinkish hues [53, 54], and by titanium oxide (TiO2), which contributes to a brownish color. The oxides K2O, Na2O, Fe2O3, CaO, and MgO are fluxing constituents that promote vitrification and influence the densification of ceramic materials during firing, thus reducing the temperature required [55]. A geochemical analysis of clays is decisive in predicting chemical reactions during firing. Silica-rich clay behaves better than silica-poor clay [56]. Silica plays a fundamental role in the densification of the ceramic product during high-temperature firing.
3.3 Thermal characterization
Clays and pore-formers need to be thermally characterized to study their crystalline structure and transformations. Differential thermal analysis (DTA) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) are necessary, because during the sintering process, several temperature steps must be respected to avoid manufacturing defects and ensure product homogeneity. During heating, materials undergo physical or chemical transformations, such as phase changes, structural modifications, decomposition, and volume variations [57, 58].
3.4 Determination of organic matter and carbonates
The determination of organic matter and carbonates in clays is crucial for controlling membrane porosity. The presence of these materials can generate gases during firing, leading to the formation of undesirable pores and cracks in the membrane structure. The decomposition of organic matter and carbonates at specific temperatures must be taken into account to respect the temperature steps necessary for the transformation of clay into ceramic. This ensures the optimum chemical composition of the clay, avoiding the introduction of undesirable elements that could alter membrane properties.
3.5 Determination of humidity
Determining the humidity content of samples enables precise control of the ceramic membrane manufacturing process. Adequate drying is essential to ensure optimum conditions throughout production.
3.6 Determination of plasticity
In the field of ceramics, Atterberg limits are important for the manufacture of membranes, especially for shaping. These limits depend on the mineralogy and particle size distribution of the materials. The more fine particles the raw material contains, the more water it absorbs. Plasticity gives an idea of the amount of water required to manufacture a ceramic paste, especially in the case of wet manufacturing.
In short, complete characterization of raw materials is essential to guarantee the quality and efficiency of the ceramic membranes produced.
4. Some examples of recent industrial and other applications
Ceramic membranes have found diversified applications in many industrial sectors due to their unique properties, such as resistance to high temperatures, chemical and mechanical resistance, as well as their ability to filter fine particles. Ceramic membranes are widely used in drinking water and industrial wastewater treatment. Their robustness enables them to filter out particles, bacteria, and organic substances without deteriorating rapidly. Ceramic microfiltration and ultrafiltration systems are commonly used in water treatment plants to ensure effective purification. Currently, several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of these membranes for water desalination [59], turbidity reduction [60], dye retention [60], and bacterial retention [42].
5. Conclusion
The objective of this chapter is to demonstrate the importance and benefits of flat clay-based ceramic membranes in water treatment. Although experimental results are lacking, we have provided a detailed description of the manufacturing and characterization processes, as well as the factors influencing membrane properties. This content is essential to convince publishers of the importance and relevance of this research in the current context of sustainable water resource management.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the people and institutions who have contributed to this work. Special thanks go to the Centre de Recherche et des Technologies des Eaux (CRTE) in Borj Cédria, Tunisia.
I would also like to thank my colleagues and collaborators for their invaluable help, sound advice, and continued support throughout this project.
References
- 1.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Coping with water scarcity: An action framework for agriculture and food security. In: FAO Water Reports No. 38. 2012. Available from: https://www.fao.org/4/i3015e/i3015e.pdf - 2.
Samhari O. Ceramic and Polymer Membranes Modified by Graphene Oxide for the Removal of Organic Molecules and the Desalination of Brackish and Seawater Thesis. France: University of Rennes 1; 2021 - 3.
Huang SC, Huang CT, Lu SY, Chou KS. Ceramic/polyaniline composite porous membranes. Journal of Porous Materials. 1999; 6 :153-159. DOI: 10.1023/A:1009687523387 - 4.
Azaman F, Nor MAAM, Abdullah WRW, Razali MH, Zulkifli RC, Zaini MAA, et al. Review on natural clay ceramic membrane: Fabrication and application in water and wastewater treatment. Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences. 2021; 17 :62-78 - 5.
Jana S, Saikia A, Purkait MK, Mohanty K. Chitosan based ceramic ultrafiltration membrane: Preparation, characterization and application to remove Hg (II) and As (III) using polymer enhanced ultrafiltration. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2011; 170 (1):209-219 - 6.
Li K. Ceramic Membranes for Separation and Reaction. John Wiley & Sons; 2007 - 7.
Li W, Ling GQ , Huang P, Li K, Lu HQ , Hang FX, et al. Performance of ceramic microfiltration membranes for treating carbonated and filtered remelt syrup in sugar refinery. Journal of Food Engineering. 2016; 170 :41-49. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.09.012 - 8.
Wei Z, Hou J, Zhu Z. High-aluminum fly ash recycling for fabrication of cost-effective ceramic membrane supports. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2016; 683 :474-480. DOI: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2016.05.088 - 9.
Li L, Chen M, Dong Y, Dong X, Cerneaux S, Hampshire S, et al. A low-cost alumina-mullite composite hollow fiber ceramic membrane fabricated via phase-inversion and sintering method. Journal of the European Ceramic Society. 2016; 36 (8):2057-2066. DOI: 10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.02.020 - 10.
Ganesh I, Ferreira JM. Influence of raw material type and of the overall chemical composition on phase formation and sintered microstructure of mullite aggregates. Ceramics International. 2009; 35 (5):2007-2015. DOI: 10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.02.020 - 11.
Caillère S. S, Henin et M. Rautureau, Les argiles, éd. Paris: Septima; 1989. p. 126 - 12.
Elma M, Yacou C, Diniz da Costa JC, Wang DK. Performance and long term stability of mesoporous silica membranes for desalination. Membranes. 2013; 3 (3):136-150. DOI: 10.3390/membranes3030136 - 13.
Hube S, Eskafi M, Hrafnkelsdóttir KF, Bjarnadóttir B, Bjarnadóttir MÁ, Axelsdóttir S, et al. Direct membrane filtration for wastewater treatment and resource recovery: A review. Science of the Total Environment. 2020; 710 :136375. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136375 - 14.
Jedidi I, Khemakhem S, Larbot A, Amar RB. Elaboration and characterisation of fly ash based mineral supports for microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes. Ceramics International. 2009; 35 (7):2747-2753. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2009.03.021 - 15.
Khemakhem S, Larbot A, Amar RB. New ceramic microfiltration membranes from Tunisian natural materials: Application for the cuttlefish effluents treatment. Ceramics International. 2009; 35 (1):55-61. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2007.09.117 - 16.
Baraka NE, Saffaj N, Mamouni R, Laknifli A, Younssi SA, Albizane A, et al. Elaboration of a new flat membrane support from Moroccan clay. Desalination and Water Treatment. 2014; 52 (7-9):1357-1361. DOI: 10.1080/19443994.2013.797542 - 17.
Guizard C, Ayral A, Julbe A. Potentiality of organic solvents filtration with ceramic membranes. A comparison with polymer membranes. Desalination. 2002; 147 (1-3):275-280. DOI: 10.1016/S0011-9164(02)00552-0 - 18.
Jeong Y, Lee S, Hong S, Park C. Preparation, characterization and application of low-cost pyrophyllite-alumina composite ceramic membranes for treating low-strength domestic wastewater. Journal of Membrane Science. 2017; 536 :108-115. DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2017.04.068 - 19.
Fantozzi G, Niepce JC, Bonnefont G. Les céramiques industrielles: Propriétés, mise en forme et applications. Dunod; 2013 - 20.
Rose J, Bottero JY, Levard C, Masion A, Cortalezzi MM, Barron AR, et al. Les membranes céramiques formées à partir de nanoparticules. Actualite Chimique. 2009; 331 :36 - 21.
Ali MB, Hamdi N, Rodriguez MA, Mahmoudi K, Srasra E. Preparation and characterization of new ceramic membranes for ultrafiltration. Ceramics International. 2018; 44 (2):2328-2335. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.10.199 - 22.
Misrar W, Loutou M, Saadi L, Mansori M, Waqif M, Favotto C. Cordierite containing ceramic membranes from smectetic clay using natural organic wastes as pore-forming agents. Journal of Asian Ceramic Societies. 2017; 5 (2):199-208. DOI: 10.1016/j.jascer.2017.04.007 - 23.
Achiou B, Elomari H, Ouammou M, Albizane A, Bennazha J, Younssi SA, et al. Elaboration and characterization of flat ceramic microfiltration membrane made from natural Moroccan pozzolan (central middle atlas). Journal of Materials and Environmental Science. 2016; 7 (1):196-204 - 24.
Makhloufi K, Moussi B, Srarfi F, Tagorti MA. Development of ceramic filtering membranes based on Tunisian clay and phosphate sludge in wastewater treatment. Solid State Sciences. 2024; 148 :107430. DOI: 10.1016/j.solidstatesciences.2023.107430 - 25.
Al-Ani, Sarapää O. Clay and Clay Mineralogy. Geologian Tutkuskeskus. M19/3232/41 30.6; 2008 - 26.
Diawara SO. Caractéristiques géotechniques, chimiques et mécaniques des matériaux argileux utilisés dans la construction de l’actuelle cité de Djenné: essais de renforcement. These de l’université de Bamako (Mali). 2009 - 27.
Sorgho B. Caractérisation et valorisation de quelques argiles du Burkina Faso: application au traitement des eaux et aux géomatériaux de construction (Doctoral dissertation, Thèse de Doctorat). Universite de Ouagadougou; 2013 - 28.
Keita I. Géomatériaux argileux du Mali pour la construction. Propriétés mécaniques, durabilité et rôle des tanins (Doctoral dissertation, Thèse de Doctorat). Universite des Sciences Techniques et Technologiques de Bamako; 2014 - 29.
Magniont C. Contribution à la formulation et à la caractérisation d'un écomatériau de construction à base d'agroressources (Doctoral dissertation). Toulouse 3; 2010 - 30.
White CE, Provis JL, Riley DP, Kearley GJ, Van Deventer JS. What is the structure of kaolinite? Reconciling theory and experiment. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2009; 113 (19):6756-6765 - 31.
Al-Shameri A, Lei XR. Characterization and evaluation of algaof kaolin deposits of yemen for industrial application. American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. 2009; 2 (2):292-296. DIO: 10.3844/ajeassp.2009.292.296 - 32.
Elomari H, Achiou B, Karim A, Ouammou M, Albizane A, Bennazha J, et al. Influence of starch content on the properties of low cost microfiltration membranes. Journal of Asian Ceramic Societies. 2017; 5 (3):313-319 - 33.
Youmoue M, Fongang RT, Sofack JC, Kamseu E, Melo UC, Tonle IK, et al. Design of ceramic filters using clay/sawdust composites: Effect of pore network on the hydraulic permeability. Ceramics International. 2017; 43 (5):4496-4507 - 34.
Obada DO, Dodoo-Arhin D, Dauda M, Anafi FO, Ahmed AS, Ajayi OA. Potentials of fabricating porous ceramic bodies from kaolin for catalytic substrate applications. Applied Clay Science. 2016; 132 :194-204 - 35.
Jamaludin AR, Kasim SR, Abdullah MZ, Ahmad ZA. Sago starch as binder and pore-forming agent for the fabrication of porcelain foam. Ceramics International. 2014; 40 (3):4777-4784 - 36.
Lorente-Ayza MM, Orts MJ, Pérez-Herranz V, Mestre S. Role of starch characteristics in the properties of low-cost ceramic membranes. Journal of the European Ceramic Society. 2015; 35 (8):2333-2341 - 37.
Hasan MM, Shafiquzzaman M, Azam MS, Nakajima J. Application of a simple ceramic filter to membrane bioreactor. Desalination. 2011; 276 (1-3):272-277 - 38.
Bose S, Das C. Role of binder and preparation pressure in tubular ceramic membrane processing: Design and optimization study using response surface methodology (RSM). Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research. 2014; 53 (31):12319-12329 - 39.
Loutou M, Misrar W, Koudad M, Mansori M, Grase L, Favotto C, et al. Phosphate mine tailing recycling in membrane filter manufacturing: Microstructure and filtration suitability. Minerals. 2019; 9 (5):318. DOI: 10.3390/min9050318 - 40.
Mouafon M, Dayirou N, Mohamed H, André N, Gisèle Laure LN, Daniel N. Effect of porogenic agent type and firing temperatures on properties of low-cost microfiltration membranes from kaolin. Transactions of the Indian Ceramic Society. 2020; 79 (1):1-12 - 41.
Hubadillah SK, Othman MHD, Ismail AF, Rahman MA, Jaafar J, Iwamoto Y, et al. Fabrication of low cost, green silica based ceramic hollow fibre membrane prepared from waste rice husk for water filtration application. Ceramics International. 2018; 44 (9):10498-10509. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.03.067 - 42.
Kamgang SP. Membranes céramiques à base d’argiles kaolinitiques, de coques de noix de coco et de coquilles d’œufs: Elaboration, caractérisation et mise en œuvre pour la désinfection des eaux destinées à la consommation. Thèse de Doctorat. Cameroun: Faculté des sciences; 2022 - 43.
Jamalludin MR, Harun Z, Othman MHD, Hubadillah SK, Yunos MZ, Ismail AF. Morphology and property study of green ceramic hollow fiber membrane derived from waste sugar cane bagasse ash (WSBA). Journal of Ceramics International. 2018; 44 :18450-18461. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2018.07.063 - 44.
Mouiya M, Abourriche A, Bouazizi A, Benhammou A, El Hafiane Y, Abouliatim Y, et al. Flat ceramic microfiltration membrane based on natural clay and Moroccan phosphate for desalination and industrial wastewater treatment. Desalination. 2018; 427 :42-50. DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2017.11.005 - 45.
Vijayan S, Narasimman R, Prabhakaran K. A urea crystal templating method for the preparation of porous alumina ceramics with the aligned pores. Journal of the European Ceramic Society. 2013; 33 (10):1929-1934 - 46.
Bazin MM, Ahmat MA, Zaidan N, Ismail AF, Ahmad N. Effect of starch addition on microstructure and strength of ball clay membrane. Jurnal Teknologi. 2014; 69 (9):117-120. DOI: 10.11113/jt.v69.3408 - 47.
Saffaj N, Younssi SA, Albizane A, Messouadi A, Bouhria M, Persin M, et al. Elaboration and properties of TiO2–ZnAl2O4 ultrafiltration membranes deposited on cordierite support. Separation and Purification Technology. 2004; 36 (2):107-114. DOI: 10.1016/S1383-5866(03)00203-X - 48.
Jana S, Purkait MK, Mohanty K. Preparation and characterization of low-cost ceramic microfiltration membranes for the removal of chromate from aqueous solutions. Applied Clay Science. 2010; 47 (3-4):317-324 - 49.
Dejou J. Les céramiques, Société Francophone de Biomatériaux Dentaires. 2010. 27 p - 50.
Julian A. Elaboration par coulage en bande et cofrittage de réacteurs catalytiques membranaires multicouches-performances. Thèse de Doctorat. Université de Limoges-France; 2008. 144 p - 51.
Saffaj N, Persin M, Younsi SA, Albizane A, Cretin M, Larbot A. Elaboration and characterization of microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes deposited on raw support prepared from natural Moroccan clay: Application to filtration of solution containing dyes and salts. Applied Clay Science. 2006; 31 (1-2):110-119 - 52.
Malik N, Bulasara VK, Basu S. Preparation of novel porous ceramic microfiltration membranes from fly ash, kaolin and dolomite mixtures. Ceramics International. 2020; 46 (5):6889-6898. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2019.11.184 - 53.
Dondi M, Raimondo M, Zanelli C. Clays and bodies for ceramic tiles: Reappraisal and technological classification. Applied Clay Science. 2014; 96 :91-109. DOI: 10.1016/j.clay.2014.01.013 - 54.
Eliche-Quesada D, Felipe-Sesé MA, López-Pérez JA, Infantes-Molina A. Characterization and evaluation of rice husk ash and wood ash in sustainable clay matrix bricks. Journal of Ceramics International. 2017; 43 :463-475. DOI: 10.1016/j.ceramint.2016.09.181 - 55.
Moussi B. Mode de genèse et valorisation de quelques argiles de la région de Nefza-Sejnane (Tunisie septentrionale) [Doctoral dissertation, PhD thesis]. Carthage University; 2012 - 56.
Jouenne CA. Traité de céramiques et matériaux minéraux, [Nouv. Éd. Modifiée, Complétée et Actualisée]. Septima; 1990. p. 62 - 57.
Caillère S, Hénin S, Rautureau M. Les argiles. 2e édition ed. Paris: Ed. Septima; 2004 - 58.
Kujawa J, Cerneaux S, Kujawski W, Knozowska K. Hydrophobic ceramic membranes for water desalination. Applied Sciences. 2017; 7 :402. DOI: 10.3390/app7040402 - 59.
Mouiya M, Bouazizi A, Abourriche A, Benhammou A, El Hafiane Y, Ouammo M, et al. Fabrication and characterization of a ceramic membrane from clay and banana peel powder: Application to industrial wastewater treatment. Journal Materials Chemistry and Physics. 2019; 227 :291-301. DOI: 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2019.02.011 - 60.
Kumar CM, Roshni M, Vasanth D. Treatment of aqueous bacterial solution using ceramic membrane prepared from cheaper clays: A detailed investigation of fouling and cleaning. Journal Water Process Engineering. 2019; 29 :100797. DOI: 10.1016/j.jwpe.2019.100797