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A study on the technological innovations in the development of ceramic membranes for water treatment is provided. These membranes have proven to be effective in removing contaminants in the water, such as heavy metals and pathogens. It discusses the different materials based on oxides such as Al2O3, TiO2, SiO2, and ZrO2, used in manufacturing, as well as fabrication techniques and surface modifications that have improved their properties. In addition, the environmental and economic impact on water treatment plants is addressed. From a financial point of view, implementing membranes can be an investment, both in acquiring the membranes and in the infrastructure. Membrane maintenance and operating costs are often high, which can affect the economic viability of the treatment plant. The results suggest ceramic membranes are a viable and efficient option for treating polluted water.
Institute of Materials Technology, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
Amparo Borrell
Institute of Materials Technology, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
María Dolores Salvador Moya
Institute of Materials Technology, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
Rut Benavente
Institute of Materials Technology, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
Juan Francisco Palomino Bernal
Institute of Materials Technology, Universitat Politècnica de València, Valencia, Spain
*Address all correspondence to: fcolfon@upvnet.upv.es
1. Introduction
Water treatment is a global challenge that requires innovative and efficient solutions to remove contaminants and ensure the availability of clean water. Ceramic membranes have emerged as a promising technology in this field due to their ability to efficiently remove a wide range of contaminants, including heavy metals and pathogens [1, 2]. These advances in ceramic membranes are driven by the development of new materials and manufacturing techniques that improve their properties and performance [3].
Ceramic membranes are primarily manufactured from oxides such as Al2O3, TiO2, SiO2, and ZrO2, each providing unique properties that benefit the filtration process [4]. These membranes stand out for their chemical and mechanical resistance, high selectivity, and ability to operate in extreme temperature and pH conditions [5]. Manufacturing techniques, such as thermal sintering, make it possible to obtain membranes with specific porous structures, essential for the performance of the filtration process [6].
In the context of sintering technology, the development of cold sintering processes represents a significant innovation. These processes allow for the densification of materials at much lower temperatures (below 300°C), which can significantly reduce the costs and problems associated with high-temperature sintering, such as the formation of blocking layers due to side reactions [7]. Cold sintering is based on the dissolution of the sharp edges of the particles by a solvent and the subsequent filling of the voids between the particles through the evaporation of the solvent and the precipitation of the dissolved species [8]. This innovative mechanism has proven effective in densifying a wide range of inorganic and organic-inorganic compounds, and its application in solid electrolytes and solid-state batteries has shown promising results [9].
To maximize the performance of ceramic membranes in water treatment, it is essential to understand and optimize their physicochemical and structural properties. Advances in characterization techniques have made it possible to analyze the microstructure of membranes in detail, facilitating the design of membranes with better filtration properties [10]. In addition, surface modifications, such as functionalization with specific chemical agents, can improve the selectivity and efficiency of membranes for the removal of specific contaminants [11].
The environmental and economic impact of the implementation of ceramic membranes in water treatment plants is an aspect to consider, while the acquisition and infrastructure necessary for the implementation of these membranes can represent a significant investment, maintenance, and operating costs tend to be high, which can affect the long-term economic viability [12]. However, environmental benefits, such as reduced pollution and improved water quality, justify continued exploration and investment in this technology.
The research of this chapter focuses on the application of cold sintering processes for the manufacture of ceramic membranes, to improve their electrochemical and structural properties. It is proposed that low-temperature densification by cold sintering can improve the ionic conductivity and structural stability of membranes, which is critical for their performance in water treatment applications [13]. In addition, the use of additives with high solubility and ionic conductivity to improve the binding between grain boundaries will be investigated, which could expand the applicability of these techniques in various target materials [14].
Therefore, the development of ceramic membranes for water treatment, in combination with innovative cold sintering techniques, represents a significant advance in water purification technology. This approach not only improves pollutant removal efficiency but also offers more sustainable and economically viable solutions to meet global water management challenges [15].
Cold sintering is an innovative process that allows the densification of ceramic materials at significantly low temperatures, using the combination of pressure and a solvent that facilitates the dissolution and recrystallization of particles at grain boundaries. This method is especially relevant in the context of technological development for the production of ceramic membranes, due to its ability to reduce energy and operating costs while minimizing the defects associated with sintering at high temperatures. The low sintering temperature not only improves the efficiency and performance of the membranes but also contributes to greater structural stability and ionic conductivity, which are essential for its application in the treatment of contaminated water.
The use of cold sintering in the manufacture of ceramic membranes represents a significant advance in terms of technological innovation. This process offers a sustainable and economically viable alternative to conventional sintering methods, enabling the production of membranes with optimized characteristics for the removal of contaminants in water. The ability of this method to operate at low temperatures and with lower energy requirements makes it a promising option for the future of water treatment technologies, thus promoting the adoption of more efficient and environmentally responsible solutions in the industry.
2. Filtration mechanisms and working principles of ceramic membranes
Ceramic membranes use a porous matrix to separate contaminants from water using physical and chemical mechanisms. According to [1, 16], these membranes operate primarily by pore size, where fine pores allow water to pass through while retaining larger particles and contaminants. This approach is supported by studies that highlight the importance of controlled porosity and pore size distribution to optimize filtration efficiency [1].
In the study of membranes, it is essential to distinguish between charged and neutral membranes, as their characteristics influence the performance of the filtration process. Distinguishing between charged and neutral membranes is essential in the field of separation and filtration, as each type of membrane has unique characteristics that directly affect process performance. Charged membranes, which can have positive or negative charges, interact differently with the suspended particles and solutes in the solution. This interaction can improve the selectivity of the filtration process, allowing for more efficient separation of contaminants, especially those with opposite charges.
On the other hand, neutral membranes lack surface charge, which can result in a different behavior against suspended matter and solutes. This type of membrane tends to have a lower affinity for certain particles, which can influence the rate of fouling (membrane clogging) and, consequently, the efficiency of the filtration process.
In addition, the surface charge of membranes affects the phenomenon of electrolysis and ion transport, which can result in variations in permeate flow and in the quality of the final product. In summary, the choice between charged and neutral membranes should be based on the specific needs of the filtration process, considering feed characteristics and separation goals to maximize system efficiency and effectiveness.
The asymmetrical configuration of the membranes plays a fundamental role in the optimization of the flow, allowing greater efficiency in the separation of solutes. In addition, flow density is directly related to the type of tangential flow applied, which can significantly affect system performance. It is also essential to consider the characteristics of the feed water, since its composition impacts the permeate flow and, therefore, the quality of the final product. Finally, the surface charge properties of the membrane are decisive in the regulation of permeate flow, as they influence the interaction with the solutes present in the water, which can modify the efficiency of the filtration process.
These interactions become especially relevant in systems where the purity of the permeate is sought to be maximized. For example, in wastewater treatment applications, the asymmetrical configuration can facilitate the removal of contaminants, while proper tangential flow helps minimize fouling, thus extending the life of the membrane. Variability in feedwater quality, which can include different levels of turbidity, concentration of dissolved solids, and presence of chemical compounds, requires membranes to be designed with specific characteristics to accommodate these conditions. Consequently, a thorough understanding of these factors allows for the design of more efficient and sustainable filtration systems, optimizing both performance and operating costs in the long term.
On the other hand, Avasarala and Bose [3] point out that in addition to pore size, surface chemical interactions play an important role in the filtration process. These interactions can include electrostatic adsorption, acid-base interactions, and hydrogen bonding, depending on the chemical composition of the ceramic membrane and the contaminants present in the water [3].
From a more analytical perspective, the research of Avasarala and Bose [3] highlights the importance of surface modification to improve the selectivity and efficiency of ceramic membranes in water treatment applications. This modification may include techniques such as nanoparticle coating or chemical functionalization to increase affinity for specific contaminants. In addition, understanding the mechanisms of mass transport within the porous matrix is critical. According to He et al. [1], porous structure of ceramic membranes not only affects the filtration efficiency but also the mechanical strength and long-term durability under different operating conditions.
In conclusion, while [1, 17] emphasize the importance of pore size and porous structure in ceramic membrane filtration mechanisms, Avasarala and Bose [3] broaden the focus by highlighting surface chemical interactions and surface modification as key strategies to improve membrane efficiency and selectivity in water treatment.
3. Recent advances in ceramic materials for water treatment membranes
Following recent advances in the field of ceramic materials for water treatment membranes (see Table 1), significant progress has been observed in improving the selectivity and efficiency of these membranes. Recent research in Table 1 highlights that “advances in materials engineering have allowed the development of ceramic membranes with improved filtration and durability properties” [3]. In addition, it has been shown that “chemical functionalization of ceramic surfaces can increase the ability of membranes to separate specific contaminants” [18]. These technological developments have paved the way for more effective applications in industrial wastewater treatment and brackish water desalination, thus contributing to improved water quality and environmental sustainability [19].
Aspect
Chemical function
Advances in engineering
Significant contributions to the global market
Development of selectivity and efficiency
Advances in materials engineering have enabled the development of ceramic membranes with significant improvements in filtration selectivity and efficiency [11].
Innovations in manufacturing methods have optimized porous structure and pore size distribution to improve contaminant separation [18].
Contributing to more effective applications in industrial wastewater treatment and brackish water desalination [19].
Chemical surface functionalization
Chemical functionalization of ceramic surfaces has been shown to increase the ability of membranes to separate specific contaminants [18].
Implementation of coatings and surface treatments that improve selectivity and reduce unwanted adsorption, increasing the durability of membranes [11].
Improving water quality by efficiently removing specific contaminants and reducing environmental impact in water treatment processes [19].
Table 1.
Research analysis matrix on ceramic materials for water treatment membranes (2020–2024).
Source: Own elaboration.
This matrix provides a framework for analyzing how these investigations have contributed from a chemical and engineering point of view, as well as their potential impact on the global water treatment technology market.
4. Designing and optimizing ceramic membranes to improve efficiency and durability
The methodology for cold sintering of ceramic membranes (see Figure 1) involves the preparation of a homogeneous suspension of ceramic powders in a solvent with soluble and conductive additives, followed by their compaction in a mold under high pressure to form a dense green body, and finally, a low-temperature heat treatment (<300°C) with continuous pressure to densify the material by dissolving particles and filling gaps [15]. This process reduces energy and operating costs by eliminating the need for high temperatures and expensive equipment, improving efficiency through high densification and reduced defects, and minimizing environmental impact [15].
Figure 1.
Methodology for the creation of cold sintering of ceramic membranes. Source: prepared by F. Colmenero, 2024.
The problem to be solved is the need for efficient and economical sintering processes to manufacture ceramic membranes for water treatment; cold sintering offers a promising solution by facilitating the production of membranes with high ionic conductivity and structural stability, as demonstrated in previous studies [15].
Table 2 A detailed and structured overview of the process of designing and optimizing ceramic membranes using cold sintering is provided. This innovative method not only seeks to reduce operating and energy costs by eliminating the need for high temperatures, but also improves efficiency through high densification and minimizes the environmental impact. The strategic selection of materials, such as oxides and solid electrolytes of high ionic conductivity, opens up new possibilities in the design and functionality of these membranes, which finds applications in advanced electrochemical devices, solid-state batteries, and precision sensors. Detailed characterization of membranes, including microstructure, ionic conductivity, and mechanical properties, is critical to optimizing their performance in specific applications such as water treatment and energy storage.
Aspect
Description
Objective
Reduce operating and energy costs, improve efficiency through high densification, and minimize environmental impact.
Problem to solve
Need for efficient and economical sintering processes to manufacture ceramic membranes for water treatment.
Expansion of technical capabilities and new possibilities in the design and functionality of ceramic membranes [8, 20].
Applications
Fundamental in high-performance electrochemical devices, solid-state batteries, gas sensors, and chemical analysis.
Cold sintering process
Suspension preparation: Dispersion of ceramic powders in solvents with additives.
Compaction: Molded under high pressure to form a compact green body.
-Sintering: Low-temperature heat treatment with continuous pressure to densify the material without high temperatures.
Membrane characterization
Evaluation of microstructure, grain limits, ionic conductivity, and mechanical properties for specific applications.
Table 2.
Design and optimization process of ceramic membranes by cold sintering.
Source: The table was prepared based on the research and detailed analysis carried out by F. Colmenero, 2024, regarding Refs. [15].
This diagram in table form provides a concise and structured overview of the process, objectives, problems to be solved, materials used, innovations, applications, and key characteristics of the cold sintering process for ceramic membranes.
4.1 Selection and preparation of materials
For the manufacture of ceramic membranes by cold sintering, materials based on oxides such as Al2O3, TiO2, SiO2, and ZrO2 will be selected. In addition, it works with solid electrolyte materials such as LLZO (Li7La3Zr2O12) and LATP (Li1.3Al0.3Ti1.7(PO4)3), known for their high ionic conductivities and possible applications in solid-state batteries [15].
The combination of solid oxides and electrolytes not only expands the technical capabilities of ceramic membranes, but also opens up new possibilities in terms of design and functionality. These materials are very important in the manufacture of advanced membranes due to their ability to facilitate ion conduction through ceramic layers, which are critical for applications in high-performance electrochemical devices.
In the field of energy, ceramic membranes based on these materials can be used in solid-state batteries, promoting greater safety and energy density compared to conventional batteries. Its high ionic conductivity allows for more efficient charging and discharging, thus contributing to improved battery durability and cycle life. In addition, in sensor technology, these membranes can play an important role in selective gas detection and chemical component analysis, taking advantage of their chemical stability and resistance to high temperatures. This makes them ideal candidates for applications in environmental monitoring, medical diagnostics, and industrial process control, where accuracy and reliability are critical.
The strategic combination of solid oxides and electrolytes opens new frontiers for the manufacture of advanced ceramic membranes, driving significant advances in several key technology sectors.
4.2 Cold sintering process
The cold sintering process involves the following steps:
Preparation of the ceramic suspension: Commercial ceramic powders are dispersed in a suitable solvent, usually water or a mixture of organic solvents, to form a homogeneous suspension. Additives with high solubility and ionic conductivity can be added to improve the bond between grain boundaries and increase the density and ionic conductivity of the final material [15].
Suspension compaction: The suspension is compacted in a mold under high pressure (up to several hundred MPa) to form a green body with high initial density.
Cold sintering: The compacted green body is heat-treated at low temperature (less than 300°C), while continuous pressure is applied. During this process, the solvent facilitates the dissolution of the sharp edges of the particles, and the subsequent evaporation of the solvent and precipitation of the dissolved species fill the gaps between the particles, achieving high densification [15].
Characterization of the membranes: To evaluate the quality and performance of cold-sintered ceramic membranes, the following characterizations will be carried out:
Microstructure and grain boundaries: Techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) will be used to study the microstructure and grain boundaries of membranes.
The chemistry, composition, and structure of grain boundaries will be analyzed to understand their relationship to enhanced ionic conductivity [15].
Ionic conductivity: Ionic conductivity shall be measured by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).
How density, grain boundary quality, and defect concentration affect the ionic conductivity of membranes will be evaluated [15].
Mechanical properties: Hardness and fracture resistance tests will be carried out to determine the mechanical properties of the sintered membranes.
These properties are critical for durability and performance in water treatment and energy storage applications [15].
5. Advanced applications of ceramic membranes in wastewater treatment
To improve the scalability of cold sintering, several key technological innovations are required. First, it is important to maintain stable temperatures and humidity levels within the sintering chambers to prevent defects and ensure the quality of the material [1]. In addition, the sintering mechanisms at the atomic and microstructural levels must be deepened to achieve high densification at low temperatures [3]. Precise control of parameters such as pressure and sintering time is essential to prevent the formation of defects such as blocking layers and pores [1]. Bringing cold sintering to large-scale industrial production requires the design of suitable furnaces and feeding systems, facing challenges of temperature uniformity and low-temperature material handling [3].
In addition, optimization of specific formulations is necessary to enable efficient densification without compromising desired properties [1]. Integrating cold sintering into industrial applications such as water treatment and energy storage involves optimizing ionic conductivity and structural stability on a large scale, which demands innovations in design and characterization [3]. Finally, the development of certification standards and procedures will be of vital importance to guarantee the quality and safety of products manufactured using this method [1, 3].
The categories are analyzed, addressing various key aspects of the operation and application of ceramic membranes in water treatment, while highlighting the importance of each identified variable and problem in enhancing membrane technology (Table 3).
Problems and variables
Explanation
Applications
References
Pore size
Pore size controls how efficiently the membrane can separate particles of different sizes.
Chemical interactions such as adsorption, acid-base interactions, and hydrogen bonding can influence the membrane’s ability to retain specific contaminants.
6. Challenges and future perspectives in ceramic membrane research and development
The main challenges to the industrial scalability of cold sintering include the design of furnaces and feeding systems suitable to ensure temperature uniformity and efficient low-temperature material handling, as well as the precise control of parameters such as temperature, humidity, and atmosphere using advanced monitoring and control systems. In addition, the composition of materials must be optimized to enable efficient densification at low temperatures and ensure effective integration into applications such as water treatment and energy storage, addressing challenges related to ionic conductivity and large-scale structural stability. Finally, the development of certification standards and procedures will be essential to ensure the quality and safety of products manufactured through this adapted process of [1, 3].
The main technological challenges in the implementation of cold sintering include:
Temperature and humidity control: Maintaining stable temperatures and humidity levels within sintering chambers is important to avoid defects and ensure material quality. Temperature and humidity control systems must be accurate and reliable.
Densification at low temperatures: Achieving high densification of materials at much lower temperatures than conventional sintering is a key technical challenge. This requires a deep understanding of the mechanisms of sintering at the atomic and microstructural levels.
Defect minimization: Low-temperature sintering must prevent the formation of blocking layers, pores, and other defects common in high-temperature sintering. This involves precise control of the process parameters.
Industrial scalability: Bringing cold sintering from laboratory scale to large-scale industrial production presents engineering challenges related to the design of furnaces, powder feeding systems, and automated processes.
Integration with applications: Integrating cold sintering efficiently into applications such as water treatment and energy storage requires optimizing the ionic conductivity and structural stability of materials.
In summary, the main technical challenges include the precise control of processing conditions, the understanding of the fundamental mechanisms of low-temperature sintering, and the scalability of the process for industrial implementation.
Cold sintering offers several significant benefits:
Cost reduction: By operating at much lower temperatures than conventional sintering, energy and operating costs are greatly reduced. In addition, cold sintering can eliminate the need for expensive high-temperature equipment, reducing capital investment [5].
Improved efficiency: The ability to achieve high densification at low temperatures can improve the ionic conductivity and structural stability of membranes, critical to their performance in water treatment and energy storage applications [14].
Minimization of defects: Low-temperature sintering can prevent the formation of blocking layers and other defects associated with high-temperature sintering, improving the overall quality of the material [8].
Environmental sustainability: By reducing energy consumption and minimizing the generation of toxic byproducts, cold sintering is a more sustainable and environmentally friendly technology [16].
6.1 Case studies on the successful implementation of ceramic membranes in water treatment projects
In Europe, ceramic membranes have been successfully implemented in several water treatment projects, focusing mainly on improving drinking water quality and wastewater management (Figure 2).
DEMOWARE project (the Netherlands):
Description: The DEMOWARE project, carried out in the Netherlands, focused on the implementation of ceramic membranes for advanced municipal wastewater treatment. Ceramic membrane technology was used for the efficient removal of persistent pollutants such as microplastics and emerging pollutants.
Results: Ceramic membranes were shown to be highly effective for contaminant removal, with high abrasion resistance and chemical stability, making them suitable for long-term wastewater treatment applications [21].
Oslo Water Treatment Plant (Norway):
Description: The Oslo water treatment plant implemented ceramic membranes for drinking water treatment, standing out for its ability to provide an effective barrier against pathogens and organic contaminants. This project focused on improving the safety of the drinking water supply through the effective elimination of microorganisms and organic compounds.
Results: The ceramic membranes proved to be robust and capable of operating with high efficiency even under fluctuating water quality conditions, ensuring high-quality drinking water standards in a sustainable manner [22].
España
In Spain, the application of ceramic membranes in water treatment projects has also shown significant progress, especially in the context of improving the sustainability and efficiency of water treatment systems.
Wastewater treatment plant in Barcelona:
Description: The wastewater treatment plant in Barcelona implemented ceramic membranes for the advanced treatment of industrial effluents. These membranes were used for water recovery and the removal of specific contaminants present in industrial wastewater.
Results: Ceramic membrane technology allowed a significant reduction in the pollutant load of treated water, complying with the strictest environmental regulations and facilitating the safe reuse of water in industrial processes [22].
LIFE REMEMBrANE project (Valencia):
Description: The LIFE REMEMBrANE project in Valencia focused on the implementation of ceramic membranes for desalination and brackish water treatment. This technology was applied to improve the energy efficiency and sustainability of desalination processes, reducing energy consumption and minimizing waste generation.
Results: The ceramic membranes developed within the framework of the LIFE REMEMBrANE project demonstrated high selectivity and durability, providing a cost-effective and environmentally friendly solution for the production of desalinated water in coastal regions [23].
Figure 2.
Successful implementation projects of ceramic membranes in water treatment projects. Source: Own elaboration.
The implementation of ceramic membranes in water treatment projects in Europe and Spain has shown promising results in terms of filtration efficiency, durability, and sustainability. These case studies highlight the ability of ceramic membranes to improve the quality of treated water, effectively manage wastewater, and promote the reuse of water resources, thereby contributing to environmental sustainability and water supply security.
6.2 Key references to recent research and technological advances in the field of ceramic membranes
The LIFE REMEMBrANE project in Valencia has made a significant contribution to several key aspects related to sustainability and energy efficiency in the treatment of brackish water using ceramic membranes.
Below are details of how this project has positively impacted and how we could extrapolate these benefits to cold sintering:
Contributions to the LIFE REMEMBrANE Project in Valencia:
Energy efficiency and sustainability:
Impact: The use of ceramic membranes in the LIFE REMEMBrANE project has significantly improved the energy efficiency of desalination processes. These membranes allow for greater water recovery and a considerable reduction in energy consumption compared to conventional desalination methods.
Benefits: This has led to a decrease in greenhouse gas emissions associated with desalinated water production, thus contributing to mitigating climate change and promoting more sustainable practices in water management.
Waste reduction and environmental impact:
Impact: Developed ceramic membranes are more durable and have a longer lifespan compared to other membrane technologies. This minimizes the generation of waste associated with frequent membrane replacement and reduces the environmental footprint of the desalination process.
Benefits: The reduction of solid and liquid waste contributes to the preservation of natural resources and the protection of sensitive aquatic ecosystems in the coastal areas where these projects are implemented.
Potential application in cold sintering:
To extrapolate these benefits to the field of cold sintering, we could consider the following points:
Energy efficiency:
Cold sintering seeks to reduce energy consumption compared to conventional methods of sintering, such as high-temperature sintering. As in the LIFE REMEMBrANE project, where energy efficiency was improved by using ceramic membranes, in cold sintering advanced ceramic materials could be explored that allow efficient densification at lower temperatures, thus reducing the overall energy consumption of the process.
Sustainability and waste reduction:
Cold sintering could benefit from ceramic materials that are not only energy-efficient but also generate less waste during the manufacturing process. This could be achieved by developing ceramic formulations that optimize densification and mechanical strength without requiring high temperatures or contaminating additives.
The LIFE REMEMBrANE project in Valencia has set an important precedent in the use of ceramic membranes to improve sustainability and efficiency in brackish water desalination. By extrapolating these principles to the field of cold sintering, we could move toward more sustainable and energy-efficient ceramic material manufacturing processes, benefiting both the environment and the manufacturing industry.
From cold sintering in Valencia, several strategies could be implemented to improve sustainability and efficiency in water treatment, benefiting not only the local region but also areas with severe water stress such as Guanajuato and Jalisco in Mexico. Here are some ideas and how they might be applied:
Development of advanced ceramic membranes:
Objective: To research and develop advanced ceramic membranes using cold sintering techniques. These membranes could be applied in filtration systems for water treatment, improving quality and reducing the pollutant load.
Benefits: The ceramic membranes developed could offer high selectivity and durability, reducing the need for maintenance and increasing the efficiency of drinking water and wastewater treatment in Valencia.
Application in water reuse projects:
Objective: To use the ceramic membranes developed for the reuse of treated wastewater in agricultural, industrial, or urban applications.
Benefits: Reduction of freshwater consumption, protection of local water resources, and improvement in sustainable water management in Valencia.
Optimization of industrial processes:
Objective: To implement cold sintering technologies for the manufacture of ceramic components used in water treatment plants and desalination systems.
Benefits: Improvement in the energy efficiency of industrial processes related to water treatment, reduction of operating costs, and minimization of environmental impacts.
According to a study by the World Resources Institute (WRI) that utilized various climate models and socioeconomic scenarios, future water stress—a measure of competition for and depletion of surface water—was assessed and ranked in 167 countries for the years 2020, 2030, and 2040. The study revealed that 33 countries are projected to experience extremely high levels of water stress by 2040 (see Figure 3). Notably, Chile, Estonia, Namibia, and Botswana may see a particularly sharp rise in water stress during this period. As a result, businesses, agriculture, and communities in these nations could become increasingly susceptible to water scarcity compared to current conditions.
Figure 3.
Water stress by country toward the year 2040. Source: World Resources Institute. www.wri.org.
In Latin America, and particularly in western Mexico, water stress is a growing challenge due to multiple factors, including increased demand for water due to population and economic growth, contamination of surface and groundwater sources, and the effects of climate change that alter precipitation patterns. Regions such as Guanajuato and Jalisco face chronic water shortages, which exacerbate the vulnerability of communities to significant socioeconomic and environmental impacts. In this context, the application of advanced ceramic membranes through technologies such as cold sintering becomes essential. Not only do these membranes offer an efficient and sustainable solution for the treatment of contaminated and brackish water, but they can also contribute to improving the quality of life by ensuring access to safe and reliable drinking water for affected populations.
Water stress is measured on a scale of 1–5, where 5 means the use of 100% of the available water.
A study by the World Resources Institute (See Figure 4) reveals that approximately one-third of the world’s population lives in countries at high risk of water scarcity shortly, with Mexico standing out in this category. The country is at a high level of water stress, consuming between 40 and 80% of its available water resources annually and ranking 24th out of 164 nations assessed globally. However, detailed analysis indicates that certain regions, especially in Northern and Central Mexico, face extremely high-water stress, using between 80 and 100% of available water. This situation underscores the urgency of taking preventive and strategic measures to improve water management and mitigate associated risks, such as increasing agricultural efficiency and investing in infrastructure for water treatment and reuse.
The states in Mexico most at risk of water crises include Baja California Sur, followed closely by Guanajuato, Mexico City, Aguascalientes, the State of Mexico, Querétaro, Hidalgo, Chihuahua, Zacatecas, Sonora, Sinaloa, Nuevo León, Morelos, Jalisco, and Tamaulipas. Conversely, several states, particularly those in the Gulf region, are experiencing a medium to high risk of drought. These include Tabasco, Veracruz, Tamaulipas, Tlaxcala, Yucatán, Colima, and Puebla (Figure 5).
The application of cold sintering in west-central Mexico represents an innovation to improve the quality of life by addressing challenges related to water access and management. Through the development of advanced ceramic membranes, cold sintering technology offers efficient and sustainable solutions for the treatment of drinking and wastewater. According to Ref. [24], ceramic membranes manufactured by cold sintering are highly selective and durable, capable of effectively filtering contaminants and improving the purity of the treated water. This not only ensures access to safe drinking water but also reduces the health risks associated with drinking contaminated water.
In addition, the application of cold sintering in brackish water desalination projects can be especially beneficial in arid and semi-arid regions of west-central Mexico, where access to fresh water is limited. According to Ref. [25], cold sintering allows the development of ceramic membranes that are energy efficient and can operate at lower temperatures, thus reducing the overall energy consumption of the desalination process. This technology not only improves the availability of drinking water but also promotes the conservation of water resources and resilience to adverse weather conditions.
Finally, the implementation of cold sintering not only offers advanced technological solutions but also drives economic and social development by promoting technological autonomy and local training in the manufacture and maintenance of ceramic membranes. According to Ref. [26], local capacity building strengthens community infrastructure and fosters sustainable water management practices, thereby improving the quality of life of affected populations. Cold sintering emerges as an ultimate invention that not only addresses critical water challenges but also empowers communities to achieve more equitable and sustainable development.
Benefits for Guanajuato and Jalisco, Mexico:
Technology and knowledge transfer:
Valencia could collaborate with institutions in Guanajuato and Jalisco to transfer cold sintering technologies and knowledge in the development of ceramic membranes. This could help establish local capacities to improve water treatment in water-stressed areas.
Implementation of sustainable solutions:
The application of cold sintering technologies in Guanajuato and Jalisco could contribute to implementing sustainable solutions for wastewater treatment and brackish water desalination. This could improve the availability of safe and potable water for local communities.
Reducing dependence on external water resources:
The adoption of advanced technologies such as cold sintering would allow Guanajuato and Jalisco to reduce their dependence on external sources of water, promoting water self-sufficiency and resilience to climate change and water scarcity.
Cold sintering in Valencia can play a very important role in improving sustainability and efficiency in water use, both locally and globally. By collaborating with regions such as Guanajuato and Jalisco in Mexico, innovative solutions could be implemented that significantly contribute to addressing the challenges of water stress and improving the quality of life of local populations.
The comprehensive examination of ceramic membranes’ filtration mechanisms and operational principles in water treatment unveils critical variables and diverse applications that are crucial to addressing global water challenges. Central to this discourse is the problem matrix that highlights key factors—such as pore size and distribution, surface chemical interactions, modifications, mass transport mechanisms, and mechanical strength—that fundamentally influence the efficiency and selectivity of these membranes across various applications, including drinking water purification, desalination, and the treatment of industrial effluents.
The ongoing research and development of ceramic membranes, particularly those fabricated through the innovative cold sintering process, present both formidable challenges and significant prospects. Notably, overcoming technological barriers such as the precise control of temperature and humidity during manufacturing, achieving effective densification at low temperatures, minimizing structural defects, and scaling production for industrial applications is essential. Furthermore, the integration of these membranes into advanced water treatment systems requires a concerted effort to tailor their properties to meet specific environmental and operational demands.
Case studies from Europe, such as the DEMOWARE initiative in the Netherlands and the LIFE REMEMBrANE project in Valencia, exemplify the advancements in filtration efficiency, durability, and reduced environmental impacts achievable with ceramic membrane technologies. These projects serve as inspiring benchmarks, particularly for regions like Guanajuato and Jalisco in Mexico, which are grappling with severe water stress. By demonstrating the feasibility of these technologies in real-world applications, they pave the way for broader adoption and implementation.
The transition toward cold sintering not only signifies a promising advancement in the sustainability and efficiency of global water treatment efforts but also embodies a proactive approach to resilience against the burgeoning challenges posed by climate change and dwindling water resources. By enabling the production of ceramic membranes at lower, energy-efficient temperatures, cold sintering substantially lowers energy consumption relative to traditional sintering methods. This reduction not only decreases operational costs but also enhances the economic viability of water treatment technologies, particularly for resource-constrained communities.
Moreover, cold sintering aligns with environmental sustainability goals by diminishing the carbon footprint and mitigating the toxic waste generated during the manufacturing of ceramic membranes. The utilization of materials that demand less energy for production and yield fewer harmful by-products underscores a commitment to greener practices in water management.
In terms of water quality, ceramic membranes produced through cold sintering exhibit remarkable efficiency and longevity, effectively filtering out a range of contaminants, including microorganisms, heavy metals, and various chemical compounds. This enhancement in water quality is crucial for reducing health risks associated with contaminated drinking water and improving overall public health outcomes.
Furthermore, the application of advanced ceramic membranes created via cold sintering facilitates the safe reuse of treated wastewater for agricultural, industrial, and urban applications. This not only conserves precious water resources but also alleviates pressure on freshwater sources, particularly in drought-prone regions.
In conclusion, cold sintering transcends a mere technological innovation in ceramic membrane production; it offers transformative, practical, and sustainable solutions that can significantly enhance access to safe drinking water while simultaneously safeguarding the environment. This innovative approach holds the potential to effectively tackle pressing global water challenges, thereby contributing to a more sustainable and resilient future for communities worldwide. As we advance toward implementing these technologies, the collaborative efforts of researchers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders will be paramount in realizing the full potential of cold sintering in addressing the water crises faced globally.
The research on the filtration mechanisms and working principles of ceramic membranes using cold sintering not only highlights their potential as an innovative solution for water treatment but also underlines their relevance in the context of global challenges related to access to drinking water and environmental sustainability. The results obtained from case studies in Europe, combined with the ability of these membranes to operate efficiently at lower temperatures and with lower energy consumption, strengthen the viability of their implementation in vulnerable regions, such as Guanajuato and Jalisco in Mexico. By offering practical solutions that improve water quality and promote the safe reuse of water resources, this research not only contributes to water science and technology, but also directly addresses the urgent needs of communities affected by water scarcity, pointing toward a more sustainable and resilient future.
This publication is part of the R&D projects PID2021-128548OB-C21 and CNS2023-144190, funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 “ERDF A way to do Europe” and by the European Union “NextGenerationEU”/PRTR, respectively.
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Written By
Fabiola Colmenero Fonseca, Amparo Borrell, María Dolores Salvador Moya, Rut Benavente and Juan Francisco Palomino Bernal
Submitted: 23 July 2024Reviewed: 19 December 2024Published: 13 February 2025
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
