Open access peer-reviewed chapter
Abstract
This chapter provides a comprehensive review of light-mediated processes in advanced ceramics, emphasizing their role in developing new materials with enhanced properties. The discussion covers photocatalysis for environmental remediation and energy production, ceramic materials in photovoltaic cells for sustainable energy, and the role of ceramics in photonic devices, such as waveguides, lasers, and optical fibers. The analysis also includes ceramic applications in laser technology, focusing on their optical properties, and biocompatible and bioactive ceramic materials in biotechnology for drug delivery, sensors, and theragnosis. Additionally, the chapter examines how light-mediated processes contribute to sustainability and the circular economy by enhancing material properties at the nanoscale and promoting energy-efficient production and recycling methods. The aim is to highlight the transformative potential of light interactions in ceramics, driving advancements in energy efficiency, environmental protection, and medical technology, and inspiring future research and applications in these areas.
Keywords
- multifunctional ceramics
- photonics
- nanotechnology
- energy ceramics
- biomaterials
- emerging technologies
1. Introduction
Light-mediated processes in advanced ceramics are recognized as a main pillar of renewable technologies, which can strongly contribute to fulfilling the roadmap and the Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET Plan) targets [1]. These processes are also aligned with the United Nations and European Sustainable Development Objectives (SDGs) [2].
The claim for advanced materials with needed economic feasibility, cost-efficiency, and higher tolerances has tiled the way for new multifunctional elements for fabrication. This is achieved by using enhanced production materials and technologies. Advanced materials, intended to meet specific requirements through designed properties, are an area of enormous importance for many researchers from the material science discipline. These compounds are typically traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced and include nanomaterials, semiconductors, and biomaterials.
Ceramic materials based on light-mediated processes have attracted great interest from researchers after demonstrating the possibility of creating multifunctional ceramic devices. Numerous research developments in the literature focus on acquiring electrical [3], optical [4], and luminescent [5] properties to release their perspective in various technological applications.
This chapter aims to present a thorough review of light-mediated processes in advanced ceramics, emphasizing their role in developing new materials with enhanced properties. Initially, recent advances in photocatalytic materials, such as titanium dioxide (TiO2), are shown. The incorporation of photoactive additives in different materials that optimize the use of light for disinfection treatments is very attractive when it comes to guaranteeing the quality of life of the people in such types of buildings. These additives should react with natural or artificial light, without the need for ultraviolet (UV) radiation, so that their bactericidal and fungicidal properties act, as it happens in other antibacterial treatments. Their antibacterial activities are directly related to a photoredox-catalyzed process that produces free reactive oxygen species (ROS), succeeding in the induction of oxidative stress and ultimately resulting in bacterial death.
Subsequently, the chapter is focused on the advances in the development of alternative wide band gap absorbers with low-temperature processing. These materials are inspired by the very recent developments of quasi-one-dimensional (Q1-D) Sb2(S,Se)3, with applications for advanced photovoltaics (PV) thoughts such as tandem and semitransparent devices, thanks to the exceptional combination of optical, electrical, and structural properties.
Afterward, a perspective on current advances and emerging challenges in photonics is also evaluated, where lanthanide ions, such as Eu3+, Tb3+, Er3+, and Yb3+, play a crucial role in the development of multifunctional materials with luminescence properties. Then, the laser innovation process aims to address issues about improving the functional performance of various devices, including ceramic surfaces. Besides, light processes for biological applications are described focusing on recent advances in photothermal and photodynamic therapies. Finally, the chapter also highlights the importance of sustainability in the production of advanced ceramic materials.
2. Pioneering photocatalysis in ceramics
The fusion of art and science has rarely been as transformative as in the field of ceramics enhanced through photocatalysis. This section delves into the pioneering advancements that have integrated photocatalytic properties into ceramic materials, ushering in a new era of functionality and innovation. Historically, ceramics have been celebrated for their esthetic and utilitarian roles, gracing ancient pottery and modern-day architectural marvels alike. However, the introduction of photocatalysis has revolutionized their applications, extending their capabilities far beyond traditional boundaries.
Photocatalysis, a process in which light energy catalyzes chemical reactions, has found a powerful ally in ceramics. These materials, known for their durability and versatility, have become a canvas for cutting-edge scientific endeavors [6]. The connection of these fields promises not only to enhance the properties of ceramics but also to address pressing environmental and technological challenges. From self-cleaning surfaces to air purification and antibacterial functionalities, photocatalytic ceramics are paving the way for smarter and more sustainable solutions in several industries [7].
This part of the chapter will explore the key milestones in the development of photocatalytic ceramics, tracing their journey from experimental concepts to practical implementations. It will highlight the contributions of visionary researchers who have pushed the boundaries of what ceramics can achieve. By examining the fundamental principles of photocatalysis and the unique properties of ceramic materials, it will uncover how these two domains synergize to create materials that are not only esthetically beautiful but also highly functional.
2.1 Advances in antibacterial ceramics
Bactericidal ceramics that leverage photocatalysis have emerged as promising materials in the fight against microbial contamination. These ceramics are typically embedded with photocatalytic materials like titanium dioxide (TiO2), which, upon exposure to light, generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) capable of degrading organic pollutants and killing bacteria [8, 9].
2.1.1 Photocatalytic mechanism
The primary mechanism for ROS generation involves the absorption of light by the photocatalyst, which excites electrons and creates electron-hole pairs. These pairs react with water and oxygen to form ROS, such as hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions, which possess strong oxidative properties capable of breaking down microbial cell walls and degrading organic matter [10].
Many materials, such as tin oxide (SnO₂) and titanium dioxide, can generate ROS when exposed to light, especially UV light. This process involves the absorption of photons, which excites electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, leaving behind holes in the valence band. Additionally, ROS can be generated through chemical reactions, such as the Fenton reaction, where hydrogen peroxide reacts with ferrous ions to produce hydroxyl radicals [11]. Applying electricity to certain materials can also induce electrochemical reactions that produce ROS.
2.1.2 Mechanism of bacterial killing
The bactericidal action of ROS operates through several interconnected mechanisms that ultimately lead to bacterial cell death. One primary mechanism is membrane damage, where ROS induce lipid peroxidation, disrupting the bacterial cell membranes [8]. This disruption compromises membrane integrity, causing leakage of cellular contents and resulting in cell death.
Additionally, ROS oxidize essential proteins, disrupting their function. This oxidative damage affects vital bacterial processes, such as enzyme activity, nutrient transport, and cell signaling, further incapacitating the bacteria [12, 13]. Finally, ROS can inflict oxidative damage on DNA, leading to mutations and hindering DNA replication and transcription. This damage prevents the bacteria from reproducing and repairing itself, culminating in bacterial death. Through these combined actions, ROS effectively neutralize bacterial threats by attacking multiple cellular targets [14].
2.1.3 Advantages of ROS for antimicrobial activity
The use of ROS for antimicrobial activity offers significant advantages. First, ROS exhibit a broad-spectrum effectiveness, targeting a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative species [15]. This wide applicability makes ROS a versatile tool in combating diverse bacterial infections.
Second, bacteria are less likely to develop resistance to ROS compared to traditional antibiotics. This characteristic is particularly valuable in the current medical landscape, where antibiotic-resistant strains pose a significant challenge. The ability of ROS to attack multiple cellular targets simultaneously reduces the likelihood of resistance development, ensuring the continued efficacy of ROS-based antimicrobial methods [16]. These advantages underscore the potential of ROS as a powerful and reliable alternative in the fight against bacterial infections.
2.1.4 Applications
The antimicrobial properties of ROS have been harnessed in various practical applications to enhance public health and safety. In the medical field, ROS-generating materials are applied as coatings for medical devices, effectively preventing bacterial colonization and infections [17]. This innovation is crucial in reducing hospital-acquired infections and improving patient outcomes.
In water treatment systems, photocatalytic materials are employed to disinfect water by killing harmful bacteria, ensuring the provision of safe and clean drinking water. These materials leverage the power of light to generate ROS, which then eliminate microbial contaminants efficiently [9].
Moreover, surfaces coated with ROS-generating materials offer continuous disinfection, providing an additional layer of protection in hospitals and public spaces. This continuous antimicrobial action helps maintain a hygienic environment, reducing the spread of infectious diseases. For optimal antibacterial efficacy, it is essential to select appropriate materials and methods that maximize ROS generation and ensure effective interaction with bacterial cells. By tailoring these parameters, the use of ROS can be fine-tuned to meet specific needs in various applications, enhancing their overall effectiveness and reliability.
2.2 Perspectives
Antibacterial ceramics offer significant advantages. First, they exhibit broad-spectrum effectiveness, targeting a wide range of bacteria, including both Gram-positive and Gram-negative species. Second, bacteria are less likely to develop resistance to these materials compared to traditional antibiotics, as they attack multiple cellular targets simultaneously, ensuring continued efficacy. These advantages highlight the potential of antibacterial ceramics as a powerful and reliable alternative in combating bacterial infections in various settings, such as hospitals, kitchens, and bathrooms.
3. Next-generation photovoltaic ceramic solutions
Solar photovoltaic technology has been gaining prominence in global energy production in recent years. Despite the dominance of silicon and halide perovskites, CH3NH3Pb
To address these challenges, recent developments have introduced new ceramic materials that are cost-effective to produce and exhibit significantly enhanced performance. These advancements render these ceramics feasible alternatives or integral components in the development of tandem photovoltaic solar cells, thereby improving the efficiency of current systems [20]. In this way, oxide, sulfide, or selenide absorbers rich in materials abundant in the Earth’s crust, such as CuSbS2, Cu2SnS3, Cu2ZnSnSe4, CuSbSe2, Cu2O, SnS, FeS2, Sb2S3, Bi2S3Sb2(S,Se)3, and Sb2Se3, have been investigated as substitutes for thin-film solar cells that are efficient, affordable, eco-friendly, and durable solar cells [20, 21]. Out of all the possibilities, binary compounds present great potential for future development because of their higher simplicity and scalability.
3.1 Antimony chalcogenides and selenides
Compounds Sb2S3, Sb2Se3, and Sb2(S,Se)3 naturally occur as the mineral stibnite, featuring an orthorhombic structure and belonging to the
3.2 Bismuth and tin sulfides
Bi2S3 is naturally found as the mineral bismuthinite, with an orthorhombic structure and a space group
Figure 1.
Record efficiencies per year for Sb2Se3, Sb2S3, Sb2(S,Se)3, Cu2O, SnS, and Bi2S3.
Similar to the antimony compounds, SnS has an orthorhombic crystal structure in the
3.3 Cuprous oxide
Cuprous oxide (Cu2O) has a cubic crystal lattice where each oxygen atom is surrounded by four copper atoms, and each copper atom is linked to two oxygen atoms within a
3.4 Perspectives
Although there are other series of highly promising compounds in this field, these ceramic binary compounds will generate significant scientific interest in the coming years. This attention is not only due to their simplicity and high stability, which reduce manufacturing costs but also because of the projected improvements in efficiency that are currently being achieved and are expected to continue in the future.
4. Photonics: Shaping the future of multifunctional ceramics
The field of photonics, which involves the generation, manipulation, and detection of light, has experienced significant advancements in recent years, profoundly impacting the development and applications of various materials. Among these materials, multifunctional ceramics have benefited greatly from these photonic advancements. This section explores the recent progress in photonics as applied to multifunctional ceramics, highlighting key examples to illustrate these developments and their broader implications.
4.1 Optical properties of lanthanide-doped ceramics
One of the major advances in photonics for multifunctional ceramics is the enhancement of luminescent properties. Lanthanide ions, such as Eu3+, Tb3+, Er3+, and Yb3+, are known for their sharp emission lines, long luminescent lifetimes, and high quantum yields, which make them ideal for various applications, including light-emitting diodes (LEDs), organic LEDs (OLEDs), and luminescent thermometry, among others. Lanthanide ions exhibit distinct electronic transitions within the 4
4.1.1 LEDs or OLEDs? Key differences and applications
As previously introduced, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) are two prominent applications of lanthanide-doped ceramics. LEDs are semiconductor devices that emit light when an electric current passes through them [32]. They are known for their energy efficiency, long lifespan, and robustness. Materials, such as the yttrium aluminum garnet doped with trivalent cerium ions (YAG:Ce3+), are commonly used in white LEDs, where the ceramic phosphor converts blue LED light into white light through a combination of blue, green, and red emissions [33]. Specifically, Ce3+ ions are excellent for this application due to their ability to absorb blue light and re-emit it as a broad spectrum that appears white to the human eye. Additionally, phosphors doped with Eu2+ can emit intense blue or green light, further enhancing the color quality and efficiency of LEDs by providing specific wavelength emissions [33].
In contrast, OLEDs are based on organic compounds that emit light in response to an electric current. They offer advantages like flexible displays, wider viewing angles, and higher contrast ratios compared to LEDs. Lanthanide complexes can be incorporated into OLEDs to achieve specific emission colors and improve device efficiency. For instance, OLEDs utilizing Eu3+ complexes can produce high-quality red emission, which significantly enhances the color gamut of displays by providing a vivid red that is difficult to achieve with other materials. However, OLEDs typically have a shorter lifespan and are more susceptible to moisture and oxygen degradation compared to LEDs. This susceptibility is a significant drawback in applications where durability and longevity are critical [32].
Despite these differences, both technologies leverage the unique properties of lanthanides to enhance their performance. The choice between LEDs and OLEDs ultimately depends on the specific requirements of the application, balancing factors, such as durability, efficiency, display quality, and color rendering.
4.1.2 Luminescent nanothermometry
Luminescent nanothermometry is an emerging application of lanthanide-doped ceramics, leveraging their temperature-dependent luminescent properties. This technique involves measuring temperature changes based on the variations in luminescence intensity, emission wavelength, or lifetime of lanthanide ions. It is particularly valuable in biomedical applications, where precise and non-invasive temperature monitoring is crucial [34].
Significant advancements in luminescent nanothermometry have been made, particularly in the development of near-infrared (NIR) emitting nanothermometers and upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs). Common UCNPs are composed of a host crystal such as metal fluorides, or ceramics based on oxides, phosphates, and vanadates doped with lanthanide ions, either individually or in combinations [35].
For example, Er3+/Yb3+ co-doped ceramics can serve as effective luminescent nanothermometers. These materials exhibit upconversion luminescence, where the emission intensity ratio between two bands varies with temperature. Such properties allow for accurate temperature measurements at the nanoscale, essential for monitoring intracellular processes and improving hyperthermia cancer treatments, as exemplified by L.F. Dos Santos
Furthermore, integrating luminescent nanothermometers with drug delivery systems has led to multifunctional hybrid materials that enable simultaneous temperature sensing and controlled drug release, highlighting their potential in precision therapeutic applications [37].
4.2 Nonlinear optical properties
The nonlinear optical properties of multifunctional ceramics have also been a focus of recent photonic research. Nonlinear optics involves the interaction of intense light with materials, leading to phenomena, such as frequency doubling, self-focusing, and optical solitons. Ceramics with enhanced nonlinear optical properties are crucial for applications in laser technology, optical switching, and signal processing [38].
For example, lithium niobate (LiNbO3) ceramics are renowned for their strong nonlinear optical coefficients, making them ideal for frequency conversion applications, such as second-harmonic generation (SHG). The material’s wide transparency range, from the visible to the infrared spectrum, coupled with its high electro-optic and acousto-optic coefficients, further enhances its utility in various photonic applications. Advances in the fabrication of domain-engineered LiNbO3 ceramics have led to improved phase-matching conditions, significantly increasing the efficiency of nonlinear optical processes [39].
Domain engineering techniques, such as electric field poling, allow for the creation of periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN) structures, which optimize the quasi-phase matching (QPM) conditions. This innovation enables efficient frequency doubling of laser light and facilitates the generation of new wavelengths not easily accessible with other materials [40].
4.3 Perspectives
Continued research and innovation in photonics are expected to drive further technological progress, enabling new applications like high-efficiency photonic sensors and advanced light-manipulating devices, while also enhancing the performance of existing technologies. This convergence not only showcases the synergy between material science and optical engineering but also paves the way for next-generation devices and systems. For instance, we can anticipate the development of highly sensitive diagnostic tools in biomedicine, more efficient energy harvesting systems, and sophisticated environmental sensing technologies.
5. Laser innovations in ceramic engineering
Laser processing has garnered significant attention for its ability to create functional surface patterns. The number of review articles is increasing due to the significant advancements in this field [41]. This non-contact method employs high-energy laser ablation to remove materials without the need for molds or masks. It offers numerous advantages, including precise results, simple operation, excellent control, adaptability to various materials, reproducibility, and sustainability. Because of its exceptionally high energy density, which exceeds the damage limits of most compounds, laser processing is capable of treating nearly all materials, including metals, semiconductors, glass, and polymers. By modifying variables such as wavelength, pulse width, pulse rates, and scanning speed, the surface structure can be readily controlled. Furthermore, advances in ultrafast lasers, like picosecond and femtosecond variants, enable the creation of intricate surface patterns, such as micropillars, cavities, and porous structures, as well as multiscale structures ranging from large to nanoscale dimensions.
5.1 Modern laser processing techniques for functional surface pattern
Several laser processing technologies exist, each suited for specific applications. The most frequently mentioned techniques in the literature include:
Direct laser ablation (DLA) : This method efficiently removes materials using laser energy to create micro/nanostructures without the need for molds. It has been enhanced by innovations, such as Laser-induced plasma micromachining (LIPMM) and double-pulse laser ablation (DPLA) [42].Direct laser interference patterning (DLIP) : This technique leverages the interference of laser beams to create periodic, three-dimensional (3D) structures that can be controlled. This method is suitable for both large-scale and nanoscale processing [43].Pulsed laser deposition (PLD) : Utilizing a high-intensity laser to create a plasma plume for material deposition, this method allows for control over surface morphology and composition, although achieving uniformity can be challenging [44].Selective laser melting (SLM): This technique is a 3D printing process that uses a laser to melt and sinter metal powder layer by layer to create metal or ceramic parts. This technique builds complex geometries with precise control of material properties [45].
5.2 Laser-processed functional surface structures
A variety of structures can be achieved through the processing methods outlined earlier. These are extensively cataloged in the referenced review article [46] and summarized below:
Laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) : Laser-induced surface periodic structures (LIPSS): These are nanoscale patterns that form on the surfaces of materials when irradiated with ultrafast laser pulses. These periodic structures are the result of interference between laser light and surface electromagnetic waves. LIPSS can improve surface properties, such as wettability, friction, optical or magnetic properties.Microchannels or microgrooves : Created through direct laser ablation, these structures are crucial for fluid transport in confined spaces. They are widely used in devices, such as microcoolers, microreactors, microfuel cells, and microfluidic chips due to their large surface area, compact size, and efficient flow distribution.Microhole structures : Typically produced by direct laser ablation, these structures are widely used in many fields. The dimensions and surface morphologies of the microholes are closely related to laser parameters, such as fluence and pulse width.Micropillars : These structures are tiny pillar-like formations produced on the surface of a material using advanced laser fabrication techniques. These structures have applications in a variety of fields, such as optics, electronics, and biology, due to their ability to manipulate light, electrical signals, and biological interactions on a microscopic scale.Porous structures : Surface porous structures created by laser ablation are patterns on a material resulting from removing material with laser pulses, forming a surface with high specific area and numerous micropores. These structures enhance heat transfer and modify wettability.Hierarchical structures : These structures consist of complex multilevel patterns in a material that combine micro- and nano-sized features. These structures improve properties, such as adhesion, wettability, heat transfer, and optical properties (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the most common laser-created functional surface structures. Adapted with permission from reference [47].
5.3 Advanced surface structures and their uses
With the advancement of the laser techniques discussed earlier, a wide range of macro-, micro-, and nano-scale surface structures have been designed and fabricated to enhance the functional performance of various devices. These structures can be applied in numerous functional areas, including optical, superhydrophobic, electronic, tribological, and biomedical applications. This section delves into the primary optical applications of laser-processed surfaces, focusing on two main categories: light trapping and antireflection structures, and surface coloring structures. Additional optical applications and their processing characteristics are reviewed comprehensively by Wang
In direct connection with Section 3, it must be emphasized that light-trapping structures like microcones or micropillars enhance solar photovoltaic efficiency by increasing light absorption. For example, Nayak
Alternatively, surface coloration manipulates light reflection, scattering, interference, or diffraction on microscopic or nanoscopic scales, giving materials like metal or silicon specific colors. Common applications include displays, anticounterfeiting, and encryption [50]. Laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS) are crucial for creating structural color by acting as diffraction gratings under white light. Studies, as those reported by Vorobyev and Guo [51] on aluminum, Li
5.4 Perspectives
Laser processing technologies offer a highly controllable and adaptable method for creating functional surface structures with applications in optics, thermal management, electronics, tribology, biomedical fields, and superhydrophobic surfaces. Despite their advantages, such as high precision, the ability to work at micro- and nanoscales, flexibility, and environmental friendliness, they still face significant challenges. These challenges include the need for more robust theories on the formation mechanisms of structures, morphology control, improving durability, and achieving the integration of multiple functions into a single structure. Future research should focus on better understanding of the laser-material interaction processes, developing precise theoretical models, creating methods to ensure stability and durability of the structures, and advancing the industrialization of these technologies for mass production.
6. Ceramics applied to biotechnology and nanomedicine
Ceramic compounds are experiencing significant growth in their application within biotechnology and nanomedicine. This expansion is due to their unique properties that include biocompatibility with the human body, high mechanical strength, optical properties, chemical stability, and the ability to be designed at nanometric scales. In this section, the properties of ceramics for biological applications will first be described, followed by their applications in biotechnology and nanomedicine, and finally, the prospects facing bioceramics.
6.1 Ceramic properties for biological applications
The biocompatibility of bioceramic materials has been extensively studied, highlighting their seamless interaction with living tissues without causing adverse reactions or rejection [55, 56]. This compatibility is crucial in medical implants, particularly in orthopedic and dental applications, where seamless incorporation with bone structures is essential.
The optical properties of ceramics play a crucial role in biotechnology and nanomedicine. Their high transparency in the infrared spectrum, as seen in ceramics such as zirconium oxide, facilitates the clear visualization of tissues for medical imaging applications [57]. Certain ceramics exhibit fluorescence capabilities, allowing real-time observation of biological processes at the cellular level, crucial for biomedical research and targeted therapies [58, 59, 60]. Ceramics also serve as photothermal agents in therapies, converting light into heat to selectively destroy cancerous cells. Additionally, they act as photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy, facilitating the production of reactive oxygen species to effectively combat malignancies [59]. These optical properties are crucial for the development of highly sensitive optical biosensors, facilitating the accurate detection of biomolecules and pathogens in biological samples, thus advancing diagnostic applications [61].
6.2 Biotechnology and nanomedicine
The significance of ceramic biomaterials in biotechnology and nanomedicine has substantially increased due to their unique properties, especially their optical characteristics.
In biotechnology, ceramic biomaterials are primarily used in implants and prosthetics due to their low thermal conductivity, which minimizes damage to surrounding tissues, and their advanced optical properties for monitoring and diagnosis. Ceramics like oxygen-deficient zirconia or titania are ideal for medical imaging applications, offering clear and precise tissue visualization [57].
In nanomedicine, the optical properties of ceramics are utilized in nanoparticles for photothermal and photodynamic therapies. In photothermal therapy, nanoparticles generate heat when exposed to light, destroying cancerous cells without harming healthy tissues. In photodynamic therapy, they act as photosensitizers, producing reactive oxygen species to destroy malignant cells. Conversely, ceramics with optical absorbance in the NIR are ideal for imaging and monitoring cancer treatment. Infrared thermal imaging and photoacoustic imaging allow simultaneous diagnosis and monitoring, offering rapid, non-invasive high-resolution sensitivity. Furthermore, the integration of magnetic elements facilitates precise monitoring using MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) [59].
Ceramics are also essential in the manufacture of optical biosensors used for the selective detection of various neurotransmitters and biological molecules. These biosensors harness the high sensitivity and selectivity provided by the optical properties of ceramics, allowing for the detection of very low concentrations of analytes in biological samples [60]. The optical properties of ceramics play a crucial role in the development of imaging devices for medical diagnostics. Fluorescence of certain ceramic materials is used in molecular imaging techniques, allowing real-time visualization of biological processes at the cellular level [58, 62].
In the past decade, there has been significant advancement in diagnostic tools and imaging agents utilizing ceramic materials. Quantum dots enable high-resolution imaging crucial for disease detection and monitoring. In fact, silica quantum dots (Cornell dots) are used for tumor imaging and monitoring in therapeutic and diagnostic applications [59].
Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) have attracted considerable interest in biomedical research owing to their tunable mesoporous structure, high specific surface area, large pore volume, and customizable particle size. These attributes make MSNs well suited for concurrent diagnosis and therapy by enabling the encapsulation and controlled release of therapeutic agents. MSNs have rapidly advanced in bioimaging techniques, enabling their use in optical imaging, MRI, PET (positron emission tomography), CT (computed tomography), and ultrasound, as outlined in Figure 3. They have shown high potential in
Figure 3.
Illustration of different imaging techniques using mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Reprinted with permission from reference [60].
6.3 Perspectives
Ceramics offer unique versatility for biomedical applications, distinguished by their biocompatibility, mechanical strength, and advanced optical properties, which are crucial for the development of innovative medical treatments and diagnostics [55, 56, 57, 63]. These characteristics not only enhance the effectiveness of implants and prosthetics but also enable photothermal and photodynamic therapies, as well as selective detection of various neurotransmitters and biological molecules at ultra-low levels [58, 59, 60]. Ongoing research in these areas promises to further advance the therapeutic and diagnostic capabilities of ceramics in modern medicine.
7. Sustainable and circular practices in ceramic production
An emblematic initiative within the Europe 2020 strategy is the circular economy, which aims to generate smart, sustainable, and inclusive growth. The evolution of the ceramic sector toward sustainability and the circular economy represents a significant transition from the traditional “make-use-dispose” model to a more rational and collaborative production and consumption strategy [64].
This shift has been driven by the need to reduce environmental impact, improve resource efficiency, and comply with increasingly stringent environmental regulations. Thus, the concept of a circular economy should be regarded as a novel approach for industrial ecosystems, encompassing the incorporation of new materials and improved products into the supply chain as resources. This integration results in a decreased reliance on primary resources and a reduction in waste generation [65].
The adoption of circular economy principles in the ceramics industry has led to a transformation in production and waste management processes that are much more innovative and sustainable. Sustainable practices in ceramic tile production have emerged as a response to the growing need to minimize the industry’s environmental impact [66]. As environmental concerns intensify, ceramic companies are adopting innovations and strategies that not only comply with environmental regulations but also promote a circular economy and resource efficiency.
The excessive extraction of raw materials such as clay, feldspar, and silica, the exhaustive use of water and energy as well as the emission of greenhouse gases are just some of the issues that have highlighted the need for a more sustainable approach in this industry. According to the Global Material Resources Outlook to 2060, “the global consumption of materials such as biomass, fossil fuels, metals, and minerals is expected to double in the next forty years” [67].
7.1 Sustainable practices in tile production
Reuse of industrial waste : One of the most notable practices is the reuse of industrial waste since this technique not only reduces the need for virgin raw materials but also minimizes the amount of waste sent to landfills. Innovative companies are developing ceramic pigments and glazes from industrial waste, achieving a dual advantage: waste reduction and the creation of sustainable products [68]. Ceramic glaze production can also significantly benefit from the reuse of ceramic waste, which includes both clay and glaze residues generated during various stages of the manufacturing process. Using ceramic waste, such as glass waste, in glaze compositions helps reduce the environmental impact by substituting traditional frits. This approach not only minimizes waste sent to landfills but also conserves raw materials and energy.Industrial symbiosis: It is a strategic approach that significantly enhances sustainability in the ceramic production process. By facilitating the exchange of materials, energy, and by-products between different industries, industrial symbiosis reduces waste and optimizes resource efficiency. This collaborative model allows for the valorization of waste products, such as using ceramic waste in the production of new materials, thereby minimizing the extraction of virgin resources and reducing environmental impact [69]. Additionally, industrial symbiosis supports circular economy principles by integrating sustainable practices within the supply chain, leading to innovative production processes that lower carbon emissions and enhance economic savingsEnergy efficiency and use of renewable energies: The ceramic sector, traditionally energy-intensive, relies heavily on high-temperature processes such as firing in kilns, which consume substantial amounts of fuel. Ceramic factories are gradually integrating systems that optimize energy use, thus reducing carbon emissions. Strategies to enhance energy efficiency include optimizing furnace operations, improving insulation, and recovering waste heat for reuse in the production cycle [70]. Therefore, the adoption of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, further reduces reliance on fossil fuels and decreases greenhouse gas emissions.Implementation of the circular economy: The circular economy in the ceramic industry is based on the conservation and rehabilitation of resources through recycling, reuse, and redesign. Research highlights the feasibility of incorporating waste materials into new ceramic products, such as wall tiles, which can include recycled content without compromising quality [66]. The circular economy framework also fosters innovation in production methods, enhancing sustainability through efficient resource use and reduced emissions. Industry-scale applications, supported by technological advancements like artificial neural networks, optimize material properties and process efficiency, demonstrating significant environmental and economic benefits [71].Use of artificial intelligence : Artificial intelligence (AI) significantly enhances the implementation of the principles of circularity in the ceramic production process by optimizing resource use, minimizing waste, and improving overall efficiency. AI-driven technologies streamline the monitoring and analysis of production processes, leading to substantial reductions in energy consumption and material waste while increasing productivity. By leveraging predictive analytics, AI can anticipate equipment maintenance needs and optimize production schedules, further reducing downtime and enhancing operational efficiency [72]. Additionally, AI facilitates the recycling and reuse of ceramic materials by improving sorting and processing techniques, thus supporting the circular economy’s goal of keeping resources in use for as long as possible. The integration of AI not only contributes to sustainable production practices but also aligns the ceramic industry with broader environmental objectives.
7.2 Perspectives
The adoption of sustainable practices in ceramic tile production is essential to mitigate the industry’s environmental impact and promote a circular economy. Strategies, such as waste reuse, energy efficiency, the incorporation of renewable energy sources, and the application of artificial intelligence, not only provide environmental benefits but also yield long-term economic gains. It is imperative that that more companies within the sector embrace these practices to secure a sustainable future.
8. Conclusions
The chapter emphasizes the importance of new materials and their applications in addressing global challenges, focusing on light-mediated processes in advanced ceramics. Innovations in photocatalytic ceramics provide self-cleaning, air purification, and antibacterial functions, which enhance public health and safety. The development of nanomaterials improves energy storage and catalysis, offering efficient and eco-friendly alternatives for solar cells. Advancements in photonics have significantly boosted the properties and applications of multifunctional ceramics, with improvements in luminescence and nonlinear optics benefiting LEDs, OLEDs, laser technology, and optical signal processing. Laser processing allows for precise surface patterning in optics, electronics, and biomedicine, although further research is needed for optimization.
In biotechnology and nanomedicine, ceramics enhance medical implants, prosthetics, and innovative therapies due to their biocompatibility and mechanical strength. Sustainability is a key focus, with the circular economy in ceramic production minimizing environmental impacts and improving resource efficiency. These advancements not only enhance our current capabilities but also pave the way for future solutions, addressing both present and unforeseen challenges. The continuous exploration and development of advanced materials are essential for sustainable progress and the well-being of humanity.
Acknowledgments
The authors appreciate financial support from research projects PID2020-116719RB-C43, funded by the Ministry of Science and Innovation (reference MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033) and TED2021-130963B-C22 (reference AEI/10.13039/501100011033/European Union NextGenerationEU/PRTR), sponsored by the “Agencia Estatal de Investigación.”
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